Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms

Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms at the base of a tree stump.

     In honor of Halloween, here is a fascinating and fitting fungus: the Jack-o-lantern Mushroom (Omphalotus illudenss). These bright orange mushrooms can be found growing in clumps on decaying stumps and base of dead trees in the Fall. A fairly good identification trait is that they have gills that run part way down their curved stalks. As they grow older they, they often are sunken in the middle top of their caps as well.

The gills run part way onto the crooked stalk.

     Jack-O Lanterns are most famous for an eerie, though rarely seen, trait, as they can glow green in the dark! Conditions have to be perfect for this to happen though. They must be mature, but not too old, and should be moist. It also helps if it is very, very dark and you concentrate on looking at their gills. I've tried this many times but have not been rewarded that often. For the best chances, make sure you let your eyes get accustomed to the dark a few minutes, use the freshest mushrooms you can find, stare at their gills, and make it as dark as possible. Jack-o-lanterns are among the 71 or so fungi (out of over 100,000 species worldwide) that show bioluminescence.

The best my camera could do to capture the bioluminescence of the mushroom gills.

     People have confused them for edible Chantarelles (which do not grow in clumps for the most part, do not have gills running down the stalks, and often grow on the forest floor rather than on stumps or base of trees). Jack-o-lanterns are supposed to have a soapy taste. Take a bit of care though since these are considered to be poisonous mushrooms. Ingesting them won't kill you, but you will be in terrible gastric distress for a couple of days (and they say, perhaps wishing you were dead).
     It is this poisonous quality that is being studied in cancer research. It appears that several types of cancer are affected by the chemicals found in Jack-o-lanterns. They also seem to have anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties as well.
     Although not unpleasant in smell, these fungi tend to attract a lot of flies and other insects, especially once they start to decompose. I've seen lots of fungus gnats, various species of flies, and even yellowjackets all in great abundance around Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms. It may be that these insects help disperse the spores, but they may just be feeding on the decomposing flesh also. Here are a couple of photos showing some.

A pair of either Drosophilid or Lauxaniid flies attracted to the mushrooms.

A fly feeds on a Jack-o-lantern Mushroom.

     Jack-o-lantern Mushrooms are definitely one of the more fascinating types of fungi. There orangish color, emergence near Halloween, and eerie green glow I thought made them very appropriate for a Halloween post. Just don't try and make pie from them...

Jack-o-lanterns emerging

Carpenter Bees

Carpenter Bee nectaring on Goldenrod

    Eastern Carpenter Bees (Xylocopa virginica) are not always well liked by people. First of all due to their large and intimidating appearance, and secondly due to the perceived damage they can cause wood. They look like very large bumble bees, but are not only larger, but also have bulkier heads and little to no "hair" on their abdomens. This often gives them a shiny, blue-black appearance unlike the hairy look of the smaller bumble bees.

Bumble Bee (left) and male Carpenter Bee (right) on Goldenrod

     Despite their large size, these are fairly docile creatures, very rarely stinging. The males can be told apart from females due to the white patch on their face and are the ones who likely make these bees look intimidating. They stake out a territory near wood structures that females are tunneling into. They then patrol, challenging anything that comes into their little area. Being somewhat short sighted,  they sometimes get uncomfortably close checking out who has entered their territory. They are completely harmless however, doubly so since only female bees/wasps can sting any ways. Stingers are modified ovipositors (egg-layers) so males do not have any way to sting.

Inside look at a Carpenter Bee hole

     Carpenter bees are solitary, unlike bumble bees, with a single mother building, tending, and occupying a tunnel with her young. She chews a hole into old wood and then angles off to one side where she builds separate cells for each of her young. She collects pollen/nectar to provision the chamber (cell) and then seals it off with saw dust from the next cell. You can often tell an active hole by the saw dust underneath.  Xylocopa eggs are among the largest of bee eggs, among the largest of most insects. They can measure almost half the bee's abdomen. Only a few eggs are laid by each mother each summer, often 8 or less. The mother also devotes more time to them than most bees or wasps do.

Post showing both Carpenter Bee hole and and damage by woodpeckers drilling out bee larvae.

 Although this is usually just cosmetic and not structural damage, it can cause some harm and concern long term or if there are many holes. This is especially so since carpenter bees show great nest fidelity, with the young coming back and building in the same wood that their mothers used and often expanding existing tunnels even more. That means that preventing them from even starting is a huge factor in making sure they do not establish a colony. Although they may tunnel into stained wood, they do not like painted, pressure treated, or varnished surfaces. Filling the empty holes and/or screening them off also can greatly help.

Carpenter Bee cheating by robbing nectar from base of hole chewed at base of flower.

   Carpenter bees are actually beneficial insects and act, for the most part, as pollinators for many flowers. Their tongues however are not as long as some bumble bees and so sometimes cannot reach into deep flowers. That means that they sometimes "cheat" and chew a hole into the base of the flowers to steal nectar without providing pollination services, something that some other bees like honeybees also can do.

Carpenter Bee sleeping under the cover of a leaf and flowers.

     Though over the summer many carpenter bees, especially males, just hid under flowers and leaves to spend the night, many are now heading back to the holes to overwinter. They will remain dormant in these holes until spring arrives and they start the cycle all over again.
     There are many dangers to carpenter bees besides angry homeowners. One such danger is a creature who's whole existence depends on its carpenter bee hosts. A large fly called the Tiger Bee Fly (Xenox tigrinus) is often noticed hovering near carpenter bee tunnels. It is a parasatoid, laying its egg in the opening and then having its own larvae kill and eat the carpenter bee larva when it is pupating. Without carpenter bees there would be no Tiger Bee Flies, so they do not end up killing them all and are not a threat to people or the bee population as a whole.

Tiger Bee Fly

                                                                           
     Carpenter bees are not liked very much or are not well appreciated, but are fascinating and important parts of the natural world. They are intricately tied into the lives of flowers and of course the Tiger Bee Fly. Just something to think about the next time an inquisitive male buzzes you or you see one near the eaves of your porch.

Persimmon - "Fruit of the Gods"

American Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) the "Fruit of the Gods"

     Few trees have as much lore and ethnobotany surrounding them as the American Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Though best known for its delicious edible qualities (but only when completely ripe), it has so many other traits. It is however hard to get past the wonderful taste of the fruits of this Genus of small trees. Its scientific Genus name Diospyros translates to "Fruit of the Gods" and many would say that is indeed a fitting name. The Algonquian name for them was something akin to "putchamin" which led to the name we have for it now. 

     Even when not full of fruit (and since this tree is dioecious, only female trees produce flowers resulting in fruit), the flat, corky rectangular bark is often enough to identify American Persimmon. It is a member of the Ebony family, with very dense, strong, and almost black heartwood. The wood has been used for spindles and to make golf clubs, but it doesn't grow large enough for any real lumber uses. 

Rectangular bark typical of persimmon

Urn shaped flowers

     The leaves are simple, nondescript, and the flowers, though fragrant, are not often noticed. It seems as though the only time people notice these small trees (growing less that 70' in most cases) is when they are loaded down with fruits.

A ripe 'Simmon ready for eating

     Although many would say it is deservedly called the "fruit of the gods" when ripe, few things compare to biting into a green persimmon. They are astringent and tart to the extreme! They so completely dry out your mouth, that it is quite a memorable experience for all the wrong reasons (and a favorite prank to play on people who are uninitiated and then tricked into biting into an unripe fruit). Captain John Smith, while near Jamestown, Virginia in the early 1600's, wrote: "If it be not ripe, it will draw a man's mouth awrie with much torment." The puckered mouth is said to last up to a full day (or at least it seems that way for those of us who have tried to eat one). So astringent is the green fruit that Francis Peyre Porcher in his Civil War treatise that is often referred to as the "Confederate Ethnobotany" says that it is better than oak for tanning (and does contain tannins). 

Sweet, colorful pulp and seeds of a ripe persimmon.

     A fully ripe persimmon is something else altogether though, considered delicious by most.  Some compare the flavor to that of dates. Although many believe that 'simmons are not edible until they have been hit by hard frosts, this is simply not true. While the cold does reduce some of the tannins and makes the fruit slightly sweeter, if the persimmon falls off the tree with only a slight pull or by shaking the tree, they should be good to eat. Ripe ones should be slightly squishy and have lost most of their green coloration as well. A stem attached to the fruit is a good clue that it fell off before being completely ripe as well, and is not ready to eat.

     The fruits are full of vitamin C, can be eaten raw, used to make puddings, breads and cakes, or made into alcoholic drinks. In fact, Porcher, in his aforementioned Confederate Civil War manual, lists not one, but three different recipes for using persimmon to make beer. He also mentions that they can make a "particularly fine brandy."

          Porcher also notes that various parts of persimmon can be used to treat fevers, diarrhea, dysentery, and sore throats. Other sources report Confederate soldiers using the roasted seeds as a coffee substitute and the seeds for buttons. The lack of supplies due to Union blockades led to many sought after substitutes for goods no longer available in the South, and persimmons answered the call for many. Similarly, various tribes used persimmon not only for food but for other purposes as well. The Cherokee for example used it to treat diarrhea, sore throats, heart burn, and even hemorrhoids. The Rappahannocks made a strong spirit similar to beer out of it as well. Oil from the seeds is said to taste similar to peanuts.

Persimmon seeds

     One of the most unusual uses for persimmons though deals with folklore claiming that one can predict how harsh the winter will be by cutting a seed in half. Legend says that if you look at the split seed, you should see one of three objects. If you see a spoon, then you will be shoveling lots of snow. If you see a knife, then it will be icy cold and the wind will cut like a knife. Finally, if you see what looks like a fork, then the winter will be mild and there will plenty to eat. 

     I must admit, the seeds are not easy to slice and the insides not that easy to interpret. Having said that, below are some I cut yesterday and which I think resemble mostly spoons and a few knives. Supposedly a bitterly cold winter with lots of snow... Let's see if that prognostication has any merit this winter.

Persimmon seeds split in half, showing mostly spoons and some knives (open to interpretation)

     Animals of course also make use of persimmon trees. Forty-six different species of caterpillars have been documented feeding on them. The fruits are consumed by numerous animals, though seem to be a favorite of raccoons, possums and foxes in particular. In fact, their scat often have persimmon seeds in them this time of year and they are likely the main dispersers of these trees. They're sometimes even called "possum trees."
     I thoroughly love to eat persimmons. They can hang on the trees for most of the winter. Though they may be shriveled, they still are quite tasty and a nice surprise on what might be an otherwise dreary day, assuming the cold has preserved them that is.

A Tale of Two Mantis

Carolina Mantis gravid (pregnant) with eggs.

Chinese Mantis gravid with eggs.

     "Praying" mantis have long fascinated people. The very term "mantis" comes from ancient Greek meaning "prophet" or "seer" due to the way they hold their legs in prayer-like fashion. Most folks know that a more appropriate name would be "preying" mantis because of their predatory nature.
     All mantis have a unique ability to turn their heads around much more than other insects. They are said to be the only insects that can look over their shoulders. Perhaps this along with their religious pose, triangular heads, and large eyes endear them to people as well. There are 20 species of mantis in North America. Unfortunately, of the two we commonly see around here, the most likely one we encounter is the non-native Chinese Mantis (Tenodera aridifolia). Our native Carolina Mantis (Stagmomantis carolina) is no longer seen as often any more, especially near cities.

     There are some distinct differences between the two, at least once they are full grown. Carolina Mantis are smaller, the flightless females (which are always bigger than males in  mantis) being under 3" long. Chinese Mantis are larger, the females getting to about 4". Chinese Mantis also have wings that extend beyond their abdomen, while the female Carolina Mantis have wings that only extend part way along the back (see photos, though doesn't hold as true for males). The Chinese Mantis also usually has a light colored line along the bottom edge of its wings that the other often lacks (especially if they are green or brown in color). The egg cases (called "ootheca") also differ, with the Carolina having a long egg case while the Chinese has an oblong one (see photos below) looking as though the bottom was sliced off. Both species can vary widely in color, though the Chinese Mantis tend to be green rather than the other colors of grey or brown. 

Chinese Mantis egg case (ootheca) with a flat bottom

Carolina Mantis egg case (ootheca)

     Various mantis were introduced into North America because of their purported value as beneficial insects that feed on pest species. The Chinese Mantis for example was first released in 1896 and are now by far our most common species. Mantis unfortunately are not very good as biological control agents. First of all, you can not make them eat what you target them to prey on. They will go for the easiest food item they can skewer with their raptorial spiny legs. They are just as likely to eat pollinators or other beneficial insects as pest species. Some studies even point out that Chinese Mantis grow larger and produce more eggs if they consume pollen as part of their diet, especially for females that are gravid full of eggs. It is no coincidence then that we often find large Chinese Mantis perched on flowering plants and eating the pollen covered pollinators that visit the flowers.

A Chinese Mantis feeds on a pollinator off a goldenrod bloom.

     Mantis are also cannibalistic, so you never have enough of them around to make much of an impact on pest species. Since big mantis eat little mantis, our smaller native Carolina Mantis are becoming more and more scarce as more gardeners introduce Chinese Mantis into their gardens in the mistaken intention of using them as biological controls. It doesn't help that a typical Carolina ootheca produces about 50 eggs, while the Chinese might produce 350 eggs.

     Here's a video of one feasting on a bumblebee perched atop goldenrod:

                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X1jIR9lXdOs

Carolina Mantis, gravid and showing a color variation. Note the smaller size as compared to the Chinese Mantis also pictured on my hand in the photo above.

     As already mentioned, mantis are cannibalistic and will eat anything smaller than themselves (and sometimes they go after larger prey which account for stories of Chinese Mantis catching small hummingbirds, lizards, frogs, and even mice). This makes mating a dangerous prospect for the smaller males. Often times they are eaten in the process, losing their heads first. They have evolved however to be able to continue to mate even if headless. Some theorize that the extra large meal helps the female to produce even more eggs, perhaps a last sacrifice by the father. Finding a headless mantis this time of year is usually a sign of these reproductive activities.
     Even if mantis survive mating, find plenty of food, and/or are taken indoors, their days are numbered. Regardless of circumstances, they do not survive much longer than late November. They last a single season, eating and being eaten. There is so much that fascinates about these creatures (I didn't go into how they develop a single ear between their legs, the only creatures in the world with a solitary ear). I have fond memories of the many I raised as a kid and others I watched hunting in meadows, or them watching me over their shoulders like only mantis can do.

Stinging Saddleback Caterpillar

   
     This Saddleback caterpillar (Acharia stimulea) showed up at a master naturalist field trip I was co-leading last year. This is one of our largest slug caterpillars (they're called this because of the way they move in a gliding fashion, with no legs showing), but you can see how small it really is. The sting hurts to be sure, but is not that big a deal for most folks and I was not afraid of getting stung. They're neither aggressive nor quick. There's been a lot of sensational info on stinging caterpillars, but they're mostly not a problem around here unless you happen to be allergic (which can happen if you're allergic to anything and is rare regardless, but it can happen, as my wife can attest to from an encounter with a stinging Barboso caterpillar in her home country of El Salvador that had her hospitalized a week).
     Most members of the slug caterpillars, family Limacodidae, are armed with stinging hairs. You can actually see the stinging spines on this one. This is considered the most powerful sting among our native slug caterpillars. Because they use their stinging spines in the construction of their protective cocoons, even these can sting. You can also see the warning colors and the saddle-marks that give them their name.
     Their stinging abilities do not protect them from all predators though, with wasps in particular preying on them. Braconid wasps insert their eggs into them and the wasp larvae feed on the inside, leaving the vital organs until the last. The walking caterpillar is a zombie. When the white little wasp cocoons show up on the outside of the caterpillar, it is basically dead but still moving. I've also seen paper wasps bite off the stinging spines so they can take them back to their nests to feed their young safely.
     Just today I found a Saddleback crossing the entry road to one of our nature centers. Having heard that they won't sting when gliding over you, I decided to test that theory. So I let it crawl onto my finger for about 20 minutes and can attest that this particular one at least did not sting me.

Apparently Saddlebacks can crawl on you without stinging. The stinging hairs are pretty evident along its back however.

     These beautiful caterpillars are polyphagic, meaning they can eat a lot of different plants. I've found them on corn, maples, oaks, elms, apple trees, even English Ivy (which almost no other native creature eats). They've also been reported feeding on the leaves of blueberry, beans, buttonbush, cabbage, citrus, grasses, grapes, linden, ash, dogwoods, cherries, iris, viburnums, and asters. The worst experience I ever had with them was when I bumped into some stinging nettles and of course got stung. A second later I got tagged again by the Saddleback that I had accidentally picked up that was feeding on the stinging nettle. A double whammy.

Ailanthus Webworm Moths

Ailanthus Webworm Moth on Goldenrod

     While most moths fly at night and are drab, a few don't follow that trend. One of these is a colorful daytime flying moth called the Ailanthus Webworm Moth (Atteva aurea). These are very common and very visible from now through the Fall, especially favoring goldenrod to nectar at. They are one of the few native insects that has benefited from the introduction of an invasive alien exotics plant, the Ailanthus, or Tree-of-Heaven.

     Formerly, Ailanthus Webworm Moths were limited to areas where their original caterpillar food host plant, the Paradise Tree (Simarouba glauca and Simarouba amara), grew in the tropics to Southern Florida. When the Ailanthus Tree (Ailanthus altissima) was introduced from China, it was similar enough that the caterpillars were able to feed on it. In fact, now the caterpillars are so associated with the widely spreading invasive plant that even their common name reflects this. The caterpillar and moth are now found well outside their original range and are as common as their exotic pest host plants.

     The moth is quite colorful, likely as a warning that it is distasteful due to the chemicals it ingests from its food plants. People often confuse it for a butterfly because of its diurnal nature and colors. It loves to nectar at such plants as goldenrods, asters, ironweeds, and other blooms, performing some minor pollination services. 

Ailanthus Webworm feeding inside its web on Ailanthus (Tree-of-Heaven)

     The caterpillars fold together several leaves and wrap them in webs, feeding inside this protective shelter. Although this is the only plant they eat in our region, they rarely do much real damage to the tree itself and are not really a natural control for this invasive pest plant. 

     I enjoy seeing these colorful moths now in our region and take some pleasure that their caterpillars feed on the invasive tree. Rare is the case where invasive species provide much benefit to native creatures, in fact the contrary is almost always the case. Helping this moth expand well outside its native range does not make up for the damages the invasive plants cause. Regardless, it is good to know that at least one creature has had this luck and adds its colors to those in our meadows, fields, and roadsides.  

Black Nightshade

Black Nightshade in fruit in my yard.

     The Nightshade family (Solanaceae) is surrounded by all sorts of legends and stories dealing with their toxicity, despite several edible members (such as tomatoes, potatoes, and hot peppers) being in the same family. Indeed, many members contain potent toxic alkaloids including such plants as Deadly Nightshade, Mandrake, Sacred Datura, and Jimsonweed (which was used locally for very important hallucinogenic rituals by the Native American Indians and which I should do a post about). Many of them can and have killed people. Atropa Belladonna was used for example by some prominent Romans to murder competitors.

Black Nightshade with the distinctive flowers typical of the Nightshade family, much like tomatoes.

     You can imagine my reaction then when my wife several years ago found a nightshade growing in our yard and declared it to be just like the ones they used to eat back in her home country of El Salvador. One look at the flower and I knew it to be a nightshade of some sort. I also explained to her that many were indeed quite poisonous and that there were many plants that could look quite similar, but that could be quite different (even if within the same family) from one country to another. Despite how sure she was, I told her it would be a very bad idea to try and eat it.
     A week passed and one evening my wife served me a delicious soup. As I devoured it, she asked me what I thought of it. I liked it, I told her, and she explained to me that the main ingredient was "Mora." Now Mora in my ancestral home of Peru means "mulberry" (the scientific Genus for mulberry is Morus by the way). I told her that it didn't taste like mulberry fruit one bit and it was too late in the season to find any anyways. She revealed to me that it wasn't that plant actually, and that it didn't even contain any fruits or berries at all. It was made using the leaves of the plant she had pointed out to me earlier that also grew in her homeland and was called "Mora" by Salvadorans.
     I did a double take as I digested the new information, and stopped my digestion of the nightshade soup she had served me (and which I had nearly finished). Several things ran through my mind at that moment: that I shouldn't have taken out that life insurance policy, that I knew many potentially deadly members of this plant family, and that I really needed to positively identify that plant (as well as have the poison control center number ready).
     I luckily had a few good resources available, but could do no better than it was called Black Nightshade. This plant is sometimes simply classified as Solanum "nigrum" but many others now believe it to be a complex of various species and maybe subspecies. I couldn't get a perfect ID other than that.
     More worrisome was that the common name Black Nightshade had contradictory information, some saying it was edible while others saying it was poisonous. Thankfully, I had on hand my favorite foraging book, the one by Samuel Thayer called "Nature's Garden" and it had Black Nightshade listed. I consider Thayer's two books the absolute best on the topic of wild edibles and foraging and so trusted it as the best resource.
     According to his very detailed and illustrated book, Black Nightshade is indeed edible both as greens and ripe fruits, regardless of which species in the complex you eat. The confusion, he believes, is in the use of the common name and the poor reputation of the Nightshade family. The aforementioned Atropa belladonna is also sometimes called Black Nightshade (as well as Deadly Nightshade and Belladonna) and is quite toxic. Thayer theorizes that poisonings from eating "Black Nightshade" are from eating this particular plant. I was positive that what I had consumed with such relish was luckily not that plant, as they are fairly different in appearance. That I'm still alive today, that I make sure to spread some Black Nightshade seeds every year to get more plants, and that my family continues to eat it, are all proof of the edibility of Black Nightshades in the Soluanum nigra complex. The variety found around here is usually classified as Solanum ptycanthum nowadays. It also helps show the importance of universally accepted scientific names rather than regional common names.

Black Nightshade, despite its dangerous reputation, has both edible leaves and ripe fruits.

     This native plant is an annual (thus why I keep making sure I spread some seed into strategic locations in my yard every year). A version of it has been consumed (or feared) across most of the world. Our own native peoples had some tribes who considered it edible, others medicinal, and yet others poisonous. Porcher's Confederate Ethnobotany considered it to have have medicinal properties but stressed its supposed dangerous effects as well.
     So my family continues to eat this plant, both as greens and when the fruit is ripe. My wife was right, which she likes to point out to me in many other things as well. Luckily most of the time my life isn't at stake when she tries to prove this to me.