Oil Beetles

Oil Beetles mating.

      Oil Beetles (Meloe spp.) are unusual beetles with a fascinating life cycle. Like their Rove Beetle cousins, the typical hardened wing covers (elytra) in beetles are very short, not covering the abdomen. Their names are derived from their habit of exuding a noxious oily substance from the joints of their legs when disturbed. This substance (including a chemical called canthardin) can cause chemical burns and can protect certain species of beetles such as Blister, Soldier, and of course Oil Beetles. The Meloe males are smaller than the females and some of the 22 or so species in our region have a bend to their antennae. The females attract their mates using pheromones this time of year. Adults feed mostly on plants, but the larvae have a very specialized diet and host.
     After hatching, the new born larvae in some species climb atop foliage and exude a pheromone attractive to certain bee species. Some even aggregate together so they look like a female bee. The male bees then arrive and the Oil Beetle larvae cling to their hair before they fly off. When the male finds a real female bee, the Oil Beetle young transfer over. The female bee then constructs her nest and the larval Oil Beetles eat the eggs and pollen stores. The cycle then starts all over again.
     I recently came across several mating Oil Beetles and noticed some much smaller beetles that seemed to be feeding on their larger cousins. What I had stumbled upon were Fire Colored Beetles from the family Pyrochroidae harvesting that blistering agent called canthardin from the Oil Beetles. The males of certain species of these Fire Colored Beetles detect the canthardin using their combed antennae and find it irresistible.

Fire Colored Beetles (Pyrochroidae family) obtaining canthardin from Oil Beetles.

     Some Pyrochronidae males seek out Blister and Oil Beetles to collect the cathardin they exude. Those who collect the most are also the most attractive to females of their own species. When mating with them, the males transfer cathardin along with the sperm packet to the females who chose them. The females then coat the eggs they lay with the blistering agent, thus hopefully protecting them from many predators.

Three male Fire Colored Beetles harvesting cathardin from the much larger Oil Beetles. 

     These beetles display just some examples of the remarkable use of chemicals and pheromones in the animal world. These are not just used for attracting mates, but in Oil Beetles to attract bees to act as hosts. In Fire Colored Beetles, they steal these chemicals from their larger relatives to be more attractive to their own females and then protect their eggs. There are numerous other examples such as these taking place daily in the world around us.
     Here's a video showing the Fire Colored Beetles attached to an Oil Beetle:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R3U9tFmrVeM&t=8s

Callery Pear and Its Cultivars

A cultivar of Callery Pear in bloom.

     This time of year, the presence of Callery Pear becomes quite evident. Overshadowing the magnolias and foreign cherries also in bloom, these invasive plants really dominate the landscape, particularly along edges and old fields. They are quite beautiful actually, despite the flowers' smell that some people dislike. This along with their quick and compact growth, "pest free" nature, and tolerance for such a wide array of soil and environmental conditions, make it an extremely popular landscape plant. That it was also self-incompatible, so would not produce messy fruits, was also considered a plus. 

Bradford Pear, a Callery Pear cultivar, with its flowers.

     However, most of these traits also make for an invasive species. This would not have been an issue if they did not reproduce, but that particular trait failed. Although the various cultivars, especially the popular Bradford Pear, could not reproduce with their own type of cultivar, so many different cultivars were planted that they indeed do cross pollinate each other. So these have now become an invasive tree species.

Callery Pear fruits and leaves.

Callery Pear escapees invading a forest edge.

     You can really see how invasive they are this time of year when the white blooms make these plants evident all over our countrysides. They are pioneering species in fields and meadows, sometimes forming monoculture forests. Trying to manage and control their numbers costs natural resource agencies a fortune, but is necessary to preserve habitats. You can do your part to eliminate seedlings, supporting local management efforts, and of course not planting any of the cultivars of Callery Pear. Be observant next time you're out and see for yourself just how dominant they are.
     There are so many reasons not to plant this tree besides besides their invasive tendencies that out compete native plants and crowd them out. Their pest free nature actually means that they do not support much in the way of native wildlife, no where near what native flora can support. The woody fruits (pears) are eaten by birds once frost softens them, that is how these are spread. But by my own personal observations, it seems that European Starlings are among the birds who do this the most. They do not provide as much as native plants, but often are one the few options left. The wood is also fairly weak and prone to breaking and dropping branches. All in all, there are much better native landscaping options available.

Spring Peepers

A Northern Spring Peeper

      Northern Spring Peepers (Pseudacris crucifer formerly Hyla crucifer) are among our smallest frogs. These tiny treefrogs only get to 1.5 inches when full grown. The males are even smaller, not even making it to that size. They may be small, but they sure do make some loud calls. Some say they're all "peep" and many consider their calls synonymous with Spring.
     Like most frogs, only the males call, forming a large chorus who's sound can carry for quite a distance. I recall one particular night long ago (one of the legendary "big nights" that herpetology fanatics always talk about when all the environmental conditions are perfect resulting in huge numbers of amphibians coming out to breed) quite well. The Peepers were so loud that I had to yell in order for my future wife to hear me, though we were barely twenty feet apart. When we left that night, the sound had been so deafening that our ears rang for an hour after leaving the swamp. Unfortunately, though I've seen some other "big nights," I've never heard that many treefrogs (and toads and even wood frogs that evening) calling at once again.
     Outside the breeding season though, Peepers are rarely seen or heard. They have excellent camouflage and can actually change color to some degree. This makes the often cited "X" field mark on their backs sometimes difficult to discern. Since they can climb into low foliage as well as hide under the leaves, they have numerous places to hide their small selves.

A pair of Spring Peepers in amplexus.

      Mating takes place in typical frog fashion: with the smaller male on top of the female in a mating position termed "amplexus." The females usually lay their eggs singly or in small batches attached to underwater objects. The eggs are tiny (though they can lay 22-1200 eggs per female) and so the resulting tadpoles are small as well. They metamorphose 45-90 days later and leave the pond or vernal pool they were using, sometimes traveling a fair distance from water.

Peepers normally lay a single egg or a small batch, but this one laid several of them together because it was in captivity with limited options on where to lay them. 

Spring Peeper tadpoles are small indeed.

     Spring Peepers are also remarkably cold tolerant, being able to survive even if portions of their bodies freeze due to production of high glucose levels in their blood system. These treefrogs often will overwinter under leaf cover, but usually above the frost line. Though known for calling in the early Spring, males sometimes get confused by the similar length days and temperatures of the Fall and will occasionally call then as well. This is sometimes referred to as the "fall echo."

A male Northern Spring Peeper calling.

     To me, the sound of a Spring Peeper chorus is one of the true signs of spring. Though I enjoy spring wild flowers and creatures, these tiny frogs embody the essence of spring for me. They will soon be quiet however, so get out to enjoy them now while you still can. Just in case though, I have a short video of a male Peeper calling from the Capital Naturalist YouTube Channel. Check it out at:
                                   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SAZUDU8MCKo

Pepper-and-Salt is a Harbinger-of-Spring

Harbinger-of-Spring is also called Pepper-and-Salt.

     One of the earliest of our native native wildflowers to bloom is the tiny spring ephemeral called Harbinger-of-Spring, or Pepper-and-Salt (Erigenia bulbosa). It often blooms as early as February, sending up a small umbel of white flowers with red anthers that soon turn black (and giving the pepper and salt appearance). It is one of the few native plants with no known symbiotic fungal (mycorrhyzal) associations, though it does host a type of rust Puccinia erigeniae. This fleeting wildflower is actually in the carrot family and its bulbous minuscule root is edible. The Cherokee also used the plant as a treatment for toothaches. Although it is easy to overlook, it is none-the-less not considered common in most locations, and since eating its root kills the plant, that is strongly discouraged. A certain mining bee, Andrena erigeniae, is said to need this plant's pollen in order to reproduce (an oligilectic relationship) and includes the plant's name in its own due to thie perceived relationship, but now many believe that though this bee likes to visit visit its flowers, it actually requires Spring Beauty (Claytonia spp.) pollen in order to reproduce. Here's a short video of this spring flower: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFOh6LI4YtI .  

     Instead, enjoy this early spring wildflower, knowing that it is among the first of many other spring ephemeral flowers soon to appear in our rich, dark, often moist, woods, a true Harbinger of Spring. 

Harbinger of Spring is one of the first flowers available to early pollinators like this solitary bee.

     

Vernal Pools

A vernal pool full of life and water.



A close-up of the same pond now drying out in summer after all the amphibians have metamorphosed or gone dormant.

 

   Vernal pools are temporary wetlands, ponds that form from melting snow/ice or early spring rains, but dry up during the hot summer. Some folks may wonder why these glorified puddles are so special, but they are actually a very unique type of habitat which support a whole array of specially evolved creatures. It is often the only place these animals can survive.
     What makes these ponds so special is that they are relatively safe, sheltered, and lack many predators. Large aquatic turtles, snakes, frogs and especially fish cannot permanently live there. Some may discover them and visit, but it is a safe haven for whatever smaller creatures can take advantage of the temporary water. The biggest danger though is that most of these creatures have to be able to complete their life cycles before the pools dry up. Some years, many may make it, other drier years, none may survive. Since many vernal pool creatures are both long lived and reproduce prolifically, there are enough good years to make up for the bad years.
     So what are these vernal pool creatures? Well, the most often noted ones are certain species of amphibians, mole salamanders and wood frogs for example, but there are many others as well. Take for instance such tiny creatures and crustaceans as Water Fleas (Daphnia mostly), Springtails, and Cyclops. To most people these are just specks swimming in (or in the case of Springtails, on top) of the water. But these are favorite foods for other creatures. They escape most of these enemies by living in vernal pools, but they support other predators there.
     Just a bit larger are the Fingernail Clams. As you may guess, they are rarely the size of even a fingernail. They are adapted to surviving buried in the mud when the pond dries. All of these are mostly detritivores and scavengers, feeding off the fallen leaves and other things rotting in the water.

My son shows an aptly named Fingernail Clam.

     What vernal pools are most well known for are certain amphibians however. These have adapted to metamorphosing quickly into air breathing adults before the pond dries up (at least most years). They also require for the most part an undisturbed woodland very near by to provide food and shelter for the adults. Without both elements, these animals cannot survive.

     One such amphibian and the most typical in our parts for vernal pools is the Wood Frog (Lithobates sylvaticus). As the name suggests, these black masked frogs live most of their lives in the woods, hiding under leaves or in other animals burrows. They are the most cold tolerant amphibian in North America, being the only New World frog found North of the Arctic Circle. They can tolerate extreme cold, capable of having sizable proportions of their bodies frozen with no ill effect. This is a necessary adaptation. Wood Frogs are the first frogs to emerge from winter dormancy (brumation), trying to get to the vernal pools early enough to give their young the best chance of long lasting water. They come out with the first relatively warm rains in spring, typically early March, but I've recorded them arriving as early as January 31. Being "cold blooded" (ectothermic), most frogs would die if the weather changed colder suddenly, as often happens in March, but not Wood Frogs.



A pair of Wood Frogs in amplexus (mating position).



     The smaller males arrive first, forming a breeding chorus with their duck-like calls. The larger females arrive soon after and they pair up to lay their loose, jelly-like egg masses that can number up to 3,000 eggs each. The dark tadpoles metamorphose a couple of months later, the speed of development dictated by the water temperature, food availability, and water supply. They can speed up development, but only to a certain point. Other frogs such as Spring Peepers, Chorus Frogs, and Toads also make use of vernal pools, but none to the extent of Wood Frogs. Although primarily herbivores, wood frog tadpoles have been known to eat other tadpoles, especially toads. For more on Wood Frogs, check here: http://capitalnaturalist.blogspot.com/2016/02/wood-frog.html.



An aggregation od Wood Frog egg masses in a shallow vernal pool.

 

    Another group of amphibians that requires vernal pools to survive are mole salamanders. This family is termed this due to their living underground in other animals' holes for most of their adult lives, rarely seen above the surface. The various species need to find fishless pools to reproduce however and are out at the same time or just after the Wood Frogs become active. The most common ones locally are Spotted and Marbeled Salamanders.



A Spotted Salamander being helped along its way to its natal vernal pool.

 

     Spotted Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) are aptly named, being large, dark salamanders with various spots on their backs. Males arrive to the pools first and wait for the females, presenting them with white sperm packets called spermataphores that may litter pond bottoms. Females lay firm, globular masses of up to 200 or so eggs, usually attached to a submerged branch or plant. These can be either white or clear, but soon turn green due to hosting a particular symbiotic algae species (Oophila amblystomatis) that may provide oxygen or camouflage for the eggs. The emerging larvae have mane-like gills and are extremely predatory. They not only eat small organisms such as water fleas and tadpoles, but anything smaller than themselves, including each other. In confined or crowded conditions, this cannibalism leads to only the largest ones surviving and few being found with out pieces or limbs missing. Salamanders display remarkable regenerative abilities however, so even missing limbs can be re-grown. If lucky, the adults can then live over 25 years. For more on theme: http://capitalnaturalist.blogspot.com/2014/03/spotted-salamandersa.html.

A Spotted Salamander egg mass with developing embryos.

     The last vernal pool species I will discuss is the Marbeled Salamander (Ambystoma opacum). These are smaller than Spotted Salamanders and this would be a huge or even fatal flaw if they had not evolved a unique survival strategy. As you recall, salamanders are predatory and big salamanders eat smaller ones, so Marbled Salamanders would appear to be evolutionary losers. Marbeled Salamanders however get a competitive edge by laying their eggs first so their larvae are bigger at the onset and can even eat the others. How do they manage this when Spotted Salamanders come out so early and sometimes even in the snow? They actually lay their eggs not in the ponds, but where the ponds will be, utilizing dry vernal pools.

Marbled Salamanders

     Marbeled Salamanders lay their eggs in the Fall or Winter. seeking their dry natal pools and laying their egg masses about half way up the banks. When the rains and melting snows (hopefully) fill the pools, their eggs are already there and they can emerge first. They then have a brief time when they can eat anything else smaller than them born in the water. By the time the Spotted Salamanders begin to out grow them, most have metamorphosed into air-breathing adults and have returned to the woods.
    

Vernal pools can be created in the right habitat. Here you see us using quick dams to build temporary vernal pools specifically to serve as breeding pools for amphibians.

A newly completed vernal pool, partially stalling water that drains from 2 locations to form a shallow temporary pool.

     Vernal pools are very specialized habitats with their own collection of organisms that depend on them. These are indeed the only places these animals can survive. They may be temporary, but vernal pools are the only place these animals can survive and need to preserved rather than belittled because of their ephemeral nature. If you get a chance, visit one of these special places and wonder at the amazing world they can contain. Until then, here's a video of a vernal pool in action on the Capital Naturalist YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eCo_J1__Qxo

Sweet Everlasting Rabbit Tobacco

Sweet Everlasting, true to its name, stands strong despite what the winter threw at it along my driveway.

     Sweet Everlasting (Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium, formerly Gnaphalium obtusifoilum) is one of those plants that seems to go unnoticed except for winter, yet has a litany of names associated with it. Indeed, few plants have as many common names as this annual plant of old fields and meadows. Many have to do with its persistent nature, its uses, or pleasant smell, but others seem so random.

Sweet White Balsam growing in an old field.

     Among the variety of names associated with it are the following: Sweet Everlasting, Ladies Tobacco, Poverty Weed, Owl's Crown, Catsfoot, Fussy-Gussy, Old Field Posey, Life-of-Man, Life Everlasting, Chafe Weed, None-So-Pretty, Horse Weed, Sweet Cudweed, Fragrant Everlasting, Indian Posey, Cherokee Tobacco, Sweet White Balsam, Field Balsam, and Rabbit Tobacco.
     Rabbit Tobacco is my favorite, probably because that is the name I learned it as, learning to smell it to confirm its identity. It has indeed been used as a tobacco substitute, especially by the poor or kids who couldn't purchase real cigarettes. But it has also been smoked medicinally, perhaps ironically, for all sorts of breathing disorders as well.
      Its smell is one of its most distinctive features. To some it smells like tobacco, to others like vanilla, and yet others like maple syrup. Few though find the odor to be unpleasant or unmemorable. The fragrance is also extremely long lasting, well into the winter or even the following spring, especially if moistened. During colonial times it was brought into homes to help perfume them.

The flowers of Fragrant Everlasting are unremarkable, always seeming to me that they need to open just a bit more. 

     The plant can be 2-3 feet tall, standing throughout the winter. The leaves tend to be woolly underneath and the flowers are bud-like with yellowish centers, seeming half closed. It can grow in poor soil conditions, taking full sun and dry conditions. I actually encourage its growth out of the cinder blocks that line my driveway. The seeds need light in order to germinate, perhaps aided in this by falling from the still-standing plant stems very late in the season. I usually tap the seed heads of this annual onto the dirt-filled cinder blocks to make sure I always have a few for the following year.
     It has been used by people for a variety of different reasons. Its use for smoking and perfuming homes has been mentioned already. Famous ethnobotanist Daniel Moerman listed numerous ways that Native American Indian tribes used these plants. The Alabama used it as a sedative to treat nerves or sleeplessness, sometimes using it as a face-wash to treat insomnia. The Cherokee thought it could treat twitching, muscle cramps, rheumatism, pains, colds, coughs, asthma, and various diseases, often employing it in sweat baths. The Rappahannocks had similar beliefs, thinking it could treat chills, fevers, and smoking it for asthma.
     The Cheyenne burned the leaves to purify gifts to the spirits, while their warriors chewed it to protect themselves prior to battles. The Creek thought it could be used to combat vomiting, against mumps, to prevent people from running away, as an inhalant for colds, as a sleep aid, to flavor medicines, and even to ban ghosts and other bad spirits. The Choctaw treated colds and lung issues with it. The Montagnais thought it could deal with coughing and tuberculosis, as did the Chippewa, Yuchi, Meskwaki, and Potawatami. The Menominee inhaled it for headaches and to treat fainting, also believing that fumigating a home with it would deal with ghosts.

I enjoy a warm cupful of Rabbit Tobacco tea, both inhaling the vapors and drinking it, hoping it will help with a persistent cough I was dealing with.

     As you can see, this plant with so many names has an equal number of uses. As far as for me, I rarely use it for more than pulling a leaf or bruising the plant for a quick whiff as I walk past it along my driveway, and keeping a few stems in my office. I love the smell of it, as well as its persistence throughout the winter. Sweet Everlasting indeed.

Southern Flying Squirrels

A Southern Flying Squirrel in its typical head-down escape position.

     The Southern Flying Squirrel is the only locally occurring type of the 2 species of flying squirrels found in North America. It is also the smallest tree squirrel in the USA and the most predatory. These nocturnal acrobats are very elusive and seldom seen, even though they are very common (more numerous than Gray Squirrels in the right habitat). Their scientific name, Glaucomys volans, breaks down to the "flying gray mouse" which given that they're rodents, is fairly applicable.

Southern Flying Squirrel cuttings. Note the singular smooth-edged opening per nut.

     Sometimes the easiest way to determine their presence is by the way they leave nuts behind with a single, circular opening cut in them. Other animals leave "cuttings" with multiple jagged holes (many voles and mice for instance) or with the husk completely destroyed (other squirrels). These are often good signs that they live in the area.
     Flying squirrels do not actually "fly" but rather glide using their skin flaps (called a patagium) and flattened tails as airfoils (they do not actually steer with their tails, despite this being widely quoted). They are among the most accomplished gliders in the world, capable of glides up to 100 yards (though preferring much shorter distances). I've seen them maneuver deftly around trees and even completely change directions to land at the base of the same tree they took off from. Catching them in flight, no matter how brief, is indeed a memorable experience. Flying squirrels typically quickly flip to the opposite side of the trunk immediately upon landing, using the tree as a shield in case they are pursued by an owl (a tactic I've been lucky enough to see work on several occasions). They also usually hang head-down on the darkest side of trees so they can easily simply release and be in the best position to glide to safety. As a general rule, for every two feet high they get, they can get close to one foot in gliding distance.

Flying Squirrel raiding a bird feeder.

     Although Southern Flying Squirrels prefer to eat insects during the warmer months, they will also feed on other small animals, eggs, carrion, fruits, fungi, seeds, and nuts. They are the most predatory of all our squirrels. These charismatic rodents are more solitary during warmer seasons and may make leaf nests (dreys) if no better hiding places are available, though they prefer tree cavities. They change their behavior in winter however, becoming social and relying principally on seeds and nuts in the absence of their regular fare. Flying Squirrels are readily attracted to feeders and bait stations during winter as well. Placing nuts, suet, and/or peanut butter out a 1/2 hour after dusk on an elevated spot and checking them nightly often results in making them regular and easily observed visitors. They are most active for about an hour after it gets dark and are quite habitual in their use of these bait stations
     I have had great results in conducting evening programs observing these charismatic creatures feeding and gliding. I actually started the programs at the nature center I used to work at and have conducted regional and national trainings on conducting these types of programs at other centers as well. Long Branch Nature Center became well known for its flying squirrels, being featured in numerous newspaper articles and even on Animal Planet twice, with one show (David Mizejewski's "Animal Habitat") featuring me. "Fairy Diddles" (a nickname for them) get quite accustomed to people, lights, and even groups very easily, being almost fearless of humans. For a short clip my wife shot od part of the indoor portion of a presentation check here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y21Lu09dX6Y&t=2s

A Flying Squirrel reaches out for some peanut butter, not even waiting for it to be applied to the feeder.

     In fact, the first time I discovered the flying squirrels at the nature center, I was moving the bird feeders inside during the evening when one popped around the tree to look at me. A bit surprised, I decided to put some peanut butter out and see if I could get a better look at it. Imagine my surprise when it scurried around the trunk and started eating the peanut butter right off the knife I was using! It didn't even wait for me to finish spreading the peanut butter on the tree. This wild squirrel simply did not see me as a danger and was fearless in getting the food, trusting in its speed and reflexes.

A Flying Squirrel peeks out from a roosting box. Note the metal barrier along the entrance edge to help prevent gray squirrels from chewing their way in, though you can see the chew marks on the metal flashing and box itself.

     Roosting boxes for them are easy to construct, the most important feature being having an opening 1 1/4" or 1 1/2" in diameter and preferably bordered with metal to keep gray squirrels (who do not like flying squirrels) from chewing their way in. Flying squirrels often pack together in den trees or roosting boxes for warmth (up to several dozen if space permits). Being so small, warmth is a critical factor and by roosting in groups, they can conserve 30% more energy. Since the males are more feisty (and since food is more available and they do not need each other for warmth) in spring and summer, attracting flying squirrels to feeders is really something best done in the coldest months of winter.

Flying squirrels are very social during winter, vocalizing and feeding or sleeping in groups.

     Breeding females get very solitary and secretive outside of winter as well, having 1-2 litters a year of 2-7 young with a 40 day gestation period. Winter roosting boxes or shelters are rarely used for nesting, the females seeking secret locations instead, since flying squirrels are not beyond eating each other's young. A third of all squirrels do not make it past their first year, with owls, outdoor cats, large snakes, foxes, and raccoons being primary predators. They otherwise can live 3-6 years in the wild, up to 15 in captivity.
     Although not legal to keep as pets locally, Flying Squirrels were quite popular in the past. Captain John Smith during his explorations was acquainted to "Assapanicks" as the Native American Indians referred to them in the Virginia Algonquian dialect. King James I requested one as early as 1609, "The King is eager to have one of the Virginia Squirrels that are said to fly." Even Teddy Roosevelt had flying squirrels during his presidency. Having taken care of un-releasable rehabilitation squirrels at the nature center, I can say they are interesting indeed. However, their nocturnal nature means that they are awake and very active when you want to be asleep.
      For a short video on them, check out this video from my YouTube Channel:
                                  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0VlytjtueU

     After seeing them perform their acrobatic glides and how readily they come to entertain at feeding stations, it easy to see the attraction. Flying squirrels have a special place in my soul. If you try to observe them at night, perhaps provide some roosting boxes, and feed them in winter, I bet you will feel the same. Here's one last longer clip from my YouTube Channel on them:
                                 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DgH5hBTh0M

A Southern Flying Squirrel sitting on my hand. Note the long whiskers and large eyes.