Sweet Everlasting Rabbit Tobacco

Sweet Everlasting, true to its name, stands strong despite what the winter threw at it along my driveway.

     Sweet Everlasting (Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium, formerly Gnaphalium obtusifoilum) is one of those plants that seems to go unnoticed except for winter, yet has a litany of names associated with it. Indeed, few plants have as many common names as this annual plant of old fields and meadows. Many have to do with its persistent nature, its uses, or pleasant smell, but others seem so random.

Sweet White Balsam growing in an old field.

     Among the variety of names associated with it are the following: Sweet Everlasting, Ladies Tobacco, Poverty Weed, Owl's Crown, Catsfoot, Fussy-Gussy, Old Field Posey, Life-of-Man, Life Everlasting, Chafe Weed, None-So-Pretty, Horse Weed, Sweet Cudweed, Fragrant Everlasting, Indian Posey, Cherokee Tobacco, Sweet White Balsam, Field Balsam, and Rabbit Tobacco.
     Rabbit Tobacco is my favorite, probably because that is the name I learned it as, learning to smell it to confirm its identity. It has indeed been used as a tobacco substitute, especially by the poor or kids who couldn't purchase real cigarettes. But it has also been smoked medicinally, perhaps ironically, for all sorts of breathing disorders as well.
      Its smell is one of its most distinctive features. To some it smells like tobacco, to others like vanilla, and yet others like maple syrup. Few though find the odor to be unpleasant or unmemorable. The fragrance is also extremely long lasting, well into the winter or even the following spring, especially if moistened. During colonial times it was brought into homes to help perfume them.

The flowers of Fragrant Everlasting are unremarkable, always seeming to me that they need to open just a bit more. 

     The plant can be 2-3 feet tall, standing throughout the winter. The leaves tend to be woolly underneath and the flowers are bud-like with yellowish centers, seeming half closed. It can grow in poor soil conditions, taking full sun and dry conditions. I actually encourage its growth out of the cinder blocks that line my driveway. The seeds need light in order to germinate, perhaps aided in this by falling from the still-standing plant stems very late in the season. I usually tap the seed heads of this annual onto the dirt-filled cinder blocks to make sure I always have a few for the following year.
     It has been used by people for a variety of different reasons. Its use for smoking and perfuming homes has been mentioned already. Famous ethnobotanist Daniel Moerman listed numerous ways that Native American Indian tribes used these plants. The Alabama used it as a sedative to treat nerves or sleeplessness, sometimes using it as a face-wash to treat insomnia. The Cherokee thought it could treat twitching, muscle cramps, rheumatism, pains, colds, coughs, asthma, and various diseases, often employing it in sweat baths. The Rappahannocks had similar beliefs, thinking it could treat chills, fevers, and smoking it for asthma.
     The Cheyenne burned the leaves to purify gifts to the spirits, while their warriors chewed it to protect themselves prior to battles. The Creek thought it could be used to combat vomiting, against mumps, to prevent people from running away, as an inhalant for colds, as a sleep aid, to flavor medicines, and even to ban ghosts and other bad spirits. The Choctaw treated colds and lung issues with it. The Montagnais thought it could deal with coughing and tuberculosis, as did the Chippewa, Yuchi, Meskwaki, and Potawatami. The Menominee inhaled it for headaches and to treat fainting, also believing that fumigating a home with it would deal with ghosts.

I enjoy a warm cupful of Rabbit Tobacco tea, both inhaling the vapors and drinking it, hoping it will help with a persistent cough I was dealing with.

     As you can see, this plant with so many names has an equal number of uses. As far as for me, I rarely use it for more than pulling a leaf or bruising the plant for a quick whiff as I walk past it along my driveway, and keeping a few stems in my office. I love the smell of it, as well as its persistence throughout the winter. Sweet Everlasting indeed.

Southern Flying Squirrels

A Southern Flying Squirrel in its typical head-down escape position.

     The Southern Flying Squirrel is the only locally occurring type of the 2 species of flying squirrels found in North America. It is also the smallest tree squirrel in the USA and the most predatory. These nocturnal acrobats are very elusive and seldom seen, even though they are very common (more numerous than Gray Squirrels in the right habitat). Their scientific name, Glaucomys volans, breaks down to the "flying gray mouse" which given that they're rodents, is fairly applicable.

Southern Flying Squirrel cuttings. Note the singular smooth-edged opening per nut.

     Sometimes the easiest way to determine their presence is by the way they leave nuts behind with a single, circular opening cut in them. Other animals leave "cuttings" with multiple jagged holes (many voles and mice for instance) or with the husk completely destroyed (other squirrels). These are often good signs that they live in the area.
     Flying squirrels do not actually "fly" but rather glide using their skin flaps (called a patagium) and flattened tails as airfoils (they do not actually steer with their tails, despite this being widely quoted). They are among the most accomplished gliders in the world, capable of glides up to 100 yards (though preferring much shorter distances). I've seen them maneuver deftly around trees and even completely change directions to land at the base of the same tree they took off from. Catching them in flight, no matter how brief, is indeed a memorable experience. Flying squirrels typically quickly flip to the opposite side of the trunk immediately upon landing, using the tree as a shield in case they are pursued by an owl (a tactic I've been lucky enough to see work on several occasions). They also usually hang head-down on the darkest side of trees so they can easily simply release and be in the best position to glide to safety. As a general rule, for every two feet high they get, they can get close to one foot in gliding distance.

Flying Squirrel raiding a bird feeder.

     Although Southern Flying Squirrels prefer to eat insects during the warmer months, they will also feed on other small animals, eggs, carrion, fruits, fungi, seeds, and nuts. They are the most predatory of all our squirrels. These charismatic rodents are more solitary during warmer seasons and may make leaf nests (dreys) if no better hiding places are available, though they prefer tree cavities. They change their behavior in winter however, becoming social and relying principally on seeds and nuts in the absence of their regular fare. Flying Squirrels are readily attracted to feeders and bait stations during winter as well. Placing nuts, suet, and/or peanut butter out a 1/2 hour after dusk on an elevated spot and checking them nightly often results in making them regular and easily observed visitors. They are most active for about an hour after it gets dark and are quite habitual in their use of these bait stations
     I have had great results in conducting evening programs observing these charismatic creatures feeding and gliding. I actually started the programs at the nature center I used to work at and have conducted regional and national trainings on conducting these types of programs at other centers as well. Long Branch Nature Center became well known for its flying squirrels, being featured in numerous newspaper articles and even on Animal Planet twice, with one show (David Mizejewski's "Animal Habitat") featuring me. "Fairy Diddles" (a nickname for them) get quite accustomed to people, lights, and even groups very easily, being almost fearless of humans. For a short clip my wife shot od part of the indoor portion of a presentation check here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y21Lu09dX6Y&t=2s

A Flying Squirrel reaches out for some peanut butter, not even waiting for it to be applied to the feeder.

     In fact, the first time I discovered the flying squirrels at the nature center, I was moving the bird feeders inside during the evening when one popped around the tree to look at me. A bit surprised, I decided to put some peanut butter out and see if I could get a better look at it. Imagine my surprise when it scurried around the trunk and started eating the peanut butter right off the knife I was using! It didn't even wait for me to finish spreading the peanut butter on the tree. This wild squirrel simply did not see me as a danger and was fearless in getting the food, trusting in its speed and reflexes.

A Flying Squirrel peeks out from a roosting box. Note the metal barrier along the entrance edge to help prevent gray squirrels from chewing their way in, though you can see the chew marks on the metal flashing and box itself.

     Roosting boxes for them are easy to construct, the most important feature being having an opening 1 1/4" or 1 1/2" in diameter and preferably bordered with metal to keep gray squirrels (who do not like flying squirrels) from chewing their way in. Flying squirrels often pack together in den trees or roosting boxes for warmth (up to several dozen if space permits). Being so small, warmth is a critical factor and by roosting in groups, they can conserve 30% more energy. Since the males are more feisty (and since food is more available and they do not need each other for warmth) in spring and summer, attracting flying squirrels to feeders is really something best done in the coldest months of winter.

Flying squirrels are very social during winter, vocalizing and feeding or sleeping in groups.

     Breeding females get very solitary and secretive outside of winter as well, having 1-2 litters a year of 2-7 young with a 40 day gestation period. Winter roosting boxes or shelters are rarely used for nesting, the females seeking secret locations instead, since flying squirrels are not beyond eating each other's young. A third of all squirrels do not make it past their first year, with owls, outdoor cats, large snakes, foxes, and raccoons being primary predators. They otherwise can live 3-6 years in the wild, up to 15 in captivity.
     Although not legal to keep as pets locally, Flying Squirrels were quite popular in the past. Captain John Smith during his explorations was acquainted to "Assapanicks" as the Native American Indians referred to them in the Virginia Algonquian dialect. King James I requested one as early as 1609, "The King is eager to have one of the Virginia Squirrels that are said to fly." Even Teddy Roosevelt had flying squirrels during his presidency. Having taken care of un-releasable rehabilitation squirrels at the nature center, I can say they are interesting indeed. However, their nocturnal nature means that they are awake and very active when you want to be asleep.
      For a short video on them, check out this video from my YouTube Channel:
                                  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0VlytjtueU

     After seeing them perform their acrobatic glides and how readily they come to entertain at feeding stations, it easy to see the attraction. Flying squirrels have a special place in my soul. If you try to observe them at night, perhaps provide some roosting boxes, and feed them in winter, I bet you will feel the same. Here's one last longer clip from my YouTube Channel on them:
                                 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3DgH5hBTh0M

A Southern Flying Squirrel sitting on my hand. Note the long whiskers and large eyes.



Outdoor Cats: Killer Kitties

An inconsiderate neighbor's cat scared away from my certified backyard habitat...

     Outdoor cats, whether they're pets, feral, or part of a TNR (Trap/Neuter/Release/Return) program, are for the most part harmful to wildlife (and bad for the cats and possibly humans as well). Numerous studies have shown that outdoor cats kill billions of birds, small mammals, and other critters. In fact, the Department of Interior's State of the Birds 2014 Report states that free roaming cats are the number one source of direct, human-caused mortality of birds. While the exact number of animals killed is debatable, that cats are hugely detrimental to wildlife is not. I am unaware of any scientific study that even suggests that outdoor cats actually benefits native wildlife in any way. On the contrary, such groups as the Smithsonian Institution, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the American Ornithologists' Union, the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, the International Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies, the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, the American Society of Mammalogists, and so many others have reached the same conclusion: that outdoor cats have serious negative effects on wildlife populations such as birds.
     Domestic cats are not native to this continent and are one of the animals most responsible for extinctions throughout the world. This is particularly true on islands, including isolated patches of habitat that function as islands for the creatures living there (which is what most of our suburban parks are). Even animals that escape the cats' clutches normally do not survive, as cat saliva contains numerous bacteria and viruses that then often infect the cat-bite victim.
     Even well-fed cats instinctively hunt for prey, meaning that those in TNR programs or those let out by pet owners continue to kill small animals, whether they wear bells, are declawed, or are well-fed. In fact, by feeding cats what you end up with are subsidized predators that compete unfairly with native predators who starve if they do not capture enough prey. More over, those native predators have even less food because of the cat competition (which are also usually present at predator density levels unknown in nature).
     Living outdoors is also not good for the cats either. Feral cats usually live 2-5 years while indoor cats often live over 17 years. Free-roaming cats are exposed to predation, cold, heat, accidents and illness. Such diseases as rabies, distemper, feline leukemia, roundworms, bartonellosis, typhus, and toxoplasmosis can not only establish themselves in cats, but then can spread to wildlife and perhaps even humans. Indeed, cats are the main host or reservoirs for some of these such as toxoplasmosis, and cats are the primary route of infection of this to other creatures such as deer and bobcats.
     It is for these reasons and many more that numerous environmental organizations are against outdoor cats, including the National Audubon Society, the Wildlife Society, the National Wildlife Federation, the American Bird Conservancy, and even PETA.
     I often hear that it is not the animals fault, but rather humans who are responsible for the present situations, and yes that is true. But it also only man that can try and fix these problems, even if they involve tough decisions and actions. It is our responsibility to do so rather than allow things to get worse or condone our mistakes.
     I do not know even one professional naturalist or natural resources manager that believes that outdoor cats are something that benefit wildlife, indeed just the opposite. Just because cats are charismatic does not mean that we should value their lives over that of native wildlife or give them special treatment. We do not allow dogs or other pets to run wild, form colonies, or defecate and trespass onto neighbors yards. So why do we treat cats differently, and at the expense of other deserving wildlife? We should not tolerate any non-native predator affecting our native wildlife, let alone subsidize them by feeding or forming colonies for them. Cats do not belong in nature and should be removed rather than encouraged. There's nothing wrong with cats, as long as they're indoor pets. So we need to make sure that people keep their cats neutered and safe indoors; safe for the cats and for wildlife.

The Groundhog: A Rodent with a Holiday

     Whether you call it a Groundhog, Woodchuck, Grease Pig, Whistle Pig, Whistler, Marmot, Chuck, or Monax, most people have heard about Marmota monax, the only rodent with its own holiday. Here are a few things you may not know about it though.
     Groundhogs are actually also our largest local ground squirrels. A large one can weigh over 12 lbs after fattening itself up by the end of Fall. The bone projection above its eye socket ( called a postorbital process) is a feature that helps place it in the squirrel family, Sciuridae. They are also the only rodents (note that all squirrels are rodents due to their ever growing incisor teeth) found locally that I am aware of that have white incisors. All other rodents that I know of around here have hardened enamel that is often yellow, orange, or otherwise discolored. Finding any rodent skull with white incisors is usually a good clue that you found a Woodchuck. The dip in the skull between the eyes is another good clue as it is unique to Marmots.

Groundhog skull showing the postorbital process above the eye that helps determine it is in the squirrel family. Note the dip between the eyes as well that helps tell you, along with the white incisors, that this is a Groundhog.

     Whistlers (so-called due to their whistle-like calls, something I've imitated to locate them in meadows by sounding off myself) are one of the few local mammals that are true hibernators. Most other so-called hibernators wake up periodically and do not undergo the metabolic processes of real hibernation. Whistle Pigs drop their body temperature from 97 to 37 degrees Fahrenheit, breathe only once every 4-6 minutes or so, and their hearts beat only about once every 15 seconds. This clearly then is more than just a deep sleep that they enter. Most lose up to half their weight by the time they awaken in early spring. Those who do not build enough body fat do not survive. Regardless, the record age for a Woodchuck is 9 years and 8 months, set in the National Zoo in DC. 

     Groundhogs are of course famous for being weather prognosticators, a legend transferred to North America and applied to groundhogs from European creatures who served the same roles such as badgers, hedgehogs, and bears in their mother countries but which were mostly lacking in Eastern North America. Originally based on Candlemas beliefs having to do with darkness and light, it now has morphed into much more lighthearted folklore. A Groundhog seeing its shadow is supposed to mean six more weeks of winter.

     While Pennsylvania's Punxsutawney Phil, the "Seer of Seers" is the best known and oldest (since 1886 there's been a "Phil" making predictions) of the famous Groundhog Day prognosticators, there are many, many more: Wiarton Willie (Ontario's white groundhog), Buckeye Chuck (Ohio State), Birmingham Bill (Alabama), Sir Walter Wally (North Carolina), General Beauregard Lee (Georgia), Pierre C. Shadeaux (Louisiana), a bunch from New York such as Staten Island Chuck, Dunkirk Dave, Malverne Mel, Pothole Pete, Holtsville Hal, and Ridge Lea Larry (must be all the boroughs I guess...), Chesapeake Chuck (Newport News, VA), Balzac Billy (Alberta), Chattanooga Chuck (Tennessee), Shubenacadie Sam (Nova Scotia), Woodstock Willie (Illinois),  and so many more. Although they all claim the crown of the best at their job, few have a better than 50-50% record. 

Groundhog hole

    

     Woodchucks (an Ojibwa term) are champion diggers (a common name Monax comes from Carolina Algonquian Indian for "digger" and is also part of the scientific name). Their burrows can go down 5' and be 45' long with multiple entrances and tunnels. They can move 700 lbs of soil a season. Many other creatures also make use of their tunnels, usually once they are empty or while the Groundhog is hibernating: foxes, turtles, toads, raccoons, snakes. weasels, mice, voles, shrews, possums, salamanders, and skunks (as I found out in a close call in my youth...). Rabbits don't live in them, but will dive into the nearest hole to escape predators, and their population often drops when there are no 'chucks around.
     All Marmots are not just great diggers, but can be good climbers just like other squirrels, despite their large size and fat. They may not do it often, but they will climb, especially in search of fruit or to escape a predator. I've twice surprised them (and myself) when I came upon them up in trees. They certainly awkward up in a tree, but are remarkably agile.
     Woodchucks have had a fairly prominent place in some Native American Indian cultures. Not only were they a good food item, but their tough hides made for good material. Some tribes saw woodchucks as an intermediary between the earth and sky, given the time spent either under ground or above. Some others, like the Cherokee, saw chucks as an important medicine animals due to their presumed herb knowledge of plants from the roots up. The Chippewa-Cree had what some might consider an unusual idea of groundhogs. To them, a marmot was a warrior image, someone who avoids trouble when possible, but fights hard if he needs to (sound advice for any warrior).
     So this Groundhog's Day, all self respecting woodchucks should be in deep "slumber." So have a Happy Groundhog Day, but don't expect to see any real wild woodchucks for some 6 more weeks or so. Since there are so many tongue twisters associated with woodchucks, how about this statement that is a bit more accurate: "If the ground is white, I'm out of sight." You'll have better luck spotting them standing up on their haunches by the side of the road during summer.

Fall Cankerworms

Winged male and wingless female Fall Cankerworm Moths

     It may not look like it, but both insects pictured above are the same species. They are Fall Cankerworm Moths, Alsophila pometaria, and in this species, the adult females are wingless. This is one of the very few moths who remain active through the winter, at least during warmer days. These Geometrid (inchworm) moths mature late in the year and thus avoid many potential predators, since many birds have migrated and most bats are either dormant or have also left. These are the most likely moths you will find this time of year.

Male Fall Cankerworms can be very variable in color and can hold their wings from either tightly wrapped to spread wide over their backs. They fly from Fall through the Winter. 

     The females of course cannot fly, sacrificing wings in order to be able to commit more resources to egg production. They send out pheromones to attract the winged males and then lay their eggs in rows encircling small tree twigs. It is believed that in some populations and under certain circumstances, females can even reproduce without mating.

Wingless female Fall Cankerworm Moth

     The emerging caterpillars "balloon" in the spring by sending silk out to be carried and spread by the wind to the various trees and shrubs they feed on. They are unique among "inchworm" or "looper" caterpillars in that they have a reduced third pair of prolegs on their fifth abdominal segment. Other inchowrms have only two pairs of prolegs near the rear of their bodies. Otherwise, cankerworms can be somewhat variable in color, from light green to dark brown. They feed on a wide variety of deciduous trees and shrubs, with oaks, elms, and maples being their favorite caterpillar host plants.

Fall Cankerworm caterpillars can be variable in color, but always are unique in having a 3rd pair of reduced prolegs as noted here by the arrow. Other Inchworms only have two sets of prolegs. 

     The dark color forms are much more common during over populated conditions when outbreaks of this native caterpillar occur. That is another unusual trait of this species, they periodically have population explosions where they can severely defoliate the forest. These outbreaks can have some serious effects, even killing trees. This seems to be especially true to stressed trees, with red and black oaks being the most likely to suffer.

Fall Cankerworm caterpillar in dark color form, typical of over crowded and population outbreak conditions. 

     Healthy trees can recover, leafing out after the caterpillars have gone through their fifth molt and pupated under the leaves and loose soil. But those trees that are stressed by lack of water, along ridge lines, or repeated defoliations, can succumb and perish.

Common Grackle and a beak full of multiple Fall Cankerworms to feed its young. 

     Normally, natural predators such as birds, ground beetles, and certain parasitic wasps (Telenomus alsophilae being the most important) keep the populations in check or quickly control population outbreaks. Caterpillars of course make up the vast majority of the food items that almost all terrestrial birds feed their nestlings. But these natural controls can be interrupted and are not always able to keep a check on caterpillar numbers. That is when the debates about whether or not to try and control or manage those numbers (and how to do so) come in to play. In places with the resources to do so, sticky bands around tree trunks and other methods are used to survey (and control) female cankerworm population densities. The females are caught as they try to climb the trees. Some jurisdictions that find high numbers of caterpillars (over 91 or so per sticky band) use that as the level to start artificial control of their numbers.

A cankerworm monitoring trap, here luckily filled mostly with other insects and spiders rather than cankwerworms.

     As some of you may be aware, this is something that has caused consternation and public debate for many years now, and is again happening. Those of us who try to manage our natural resources are often in difficult situations and often have to make tough decisions about what to do to try to achieve a balance of wildlife and what the environment can support. When we make recommendations for population controls of any creature or plant, we do not do so lightly. We, hopefully, use whatever knowledge or data we can to make those decisions and depend on our own expertise and/or that of others. We should not make these decisions without a lot of thought as to the consequences they entail or base them on emotion. It also can sometimes be difficult for us to then be questioned as to our motives or to have the public voice their own opinions opposing our decisions based on emotion or incomplete knowledge of the facts. At the same time, I do encourage folks to be informed, ask intelligent, non-emotional questions, and provide input, but to also understand that we sometimes end up having to pick the lesser of two evils or give in to ill-informed public pressure. It is for that reason that I am not questioning or second guessing the decisions of my likely better-informed colleagues. 

     Having said all of that, and though this makes this a very long Blog post, I'd like to share some information on what I know about the decisions to spray for control of what is after all a native insect that can be a valuable food source, and at times can also pose disastrous damage to our remaining stressed forests. First of all, these are insects that have evolved with our native trees and so they do not under normal conditions cause the death of their food source.

     But we do not have normal, balanced ecological systems and conditions in most situations. Predator such as birds, beetles, and wasps are often in low numbers and in fragmented habitat islands. Our forests are already stressed and altered by invasive plants, changes in water tables, over browsing by overpopulated herbivores, lack of pollinators, low diversity and missing native plants, and so many other factors. This probably allows for some outbreaks in Fall Cankerworms that otherwise might not have taken place, and if let unchecked by natural controls, can be extremely damaging to the small amounts of fragmented forests we have left. 

Though the darker morph is often a sign of overpopulation, you can have both light and dark caterpillars out at the same time and even on the same leaf.

     Even if the outbreak is allowed to run its course, we have a lot fewer trees left to recover or to begin anew. If the leaves are consumed by cankerworms, then they do not provide food for insects such as other caterpillars or cover/shelter for nesting birds and other creatures. The leaves that grow back also do not supply the same quality forage the original leaves would have had. That means that some wildlife or plants may not recover. Noted entomologist and author Doug Tallamy, of Bringing Nature Home fame, has even been quoted as saying that in our jurisdictions some spraying is better in the long term than no spraying at all. But he also adds that it needs to be a measured integrated pest management approach, carried out as conservatively as possible, since eruptive populations eventually crash on their own anyways. 

     The pesticide sprayed is normally Btk, which is naturally occurring, breaks down over a month or so, and targets only caterpillars, but it kills any type of caterpillars that feed on it. That can mean not only that most of the food is killed off just when the birds and some other creatures really need it most while breeding, but that for some localized populations, they may be locally extirpated, completely wiped out. Some though would argue that when all the leaves have been consumed by cankerworms, you get the same results, as well as no nesting cover and perhaps the death of a centuries old tree that cannot be replaced. 

     But with our fragmented forests, sometimes other caterpillars, invertebrates, and their predators cannot recolonize or do so at a much slower pace. This includes such important natural controls as the aforementioned wasp species, meaning that we may then have to be locked into cycles of having to spray all the time, never allowing natural predator numbers (and other species) to recover. Even many birds do not recover, despite being able to fly in. Perhaps this is due to not having the same numbers of various caterpillars and other prey items available, or perhaps this is due to "nest fidelity" (returning to the same sites as they have had success nesting; so if not nesting one year, they may not return again for quite a while until new birds try again). Regardless, there can be long term or permanent effects one way or another.

     So there's the problem as to what to do, if anything: gamble that natural predators and disease will control the numbers (and they will, eventually), or spray to prevent perhaps even longer term affects from taking place. So what is my personal position in this dilemma? I do not think we should take a potential weapon out of our arsenal to combat these creatures if we need to do so someday. We should not wholesale decide that we cannot use Btk or spray to control cankerworms.

     Having said that, we need to be very careful and measured when we do decide to use this option as it will have definite effects on the ecology of the forests. It should only be used if we are reasonably sure of the consequences if it is not used. We need to take into account the population numbers, the color form of the caterpillars, the species composition and location of the trees (we know that black/red oaks along ridge lines and experiencing water shortage or other stress are most susceptible for example), and how much of an area we target. This takes resources though that we often don't have to get accurate measures, or studies to either prove or disprove that our actions have the intended consequences and not others. We really don't have many of these resources in sufficient knowledgeable staff, surveyors, and long term studies. 

     I think that it is very likely that we do spray too much, trying to play it safe so as to not lose whole forests. When my own neighborhood was scheduled to be sprayed last year, I opted out, knowing that in my small piece of land we did not have too many cankerworms and that spraying would cause more harm than good. But what about other locations? Luckily, Arlington did not seem to have over populations of this species, though we don't have a budget to do much if we were to find extremely high numbers anyways.

     So, there are no easy answers. I would not vote to no longer do any type of spraying, because some day we may really need to. But I also think that we need to do some studies and have better resources, perhaps including citizen scientists, to help collect population data, and trained staff to be able to make those tough calls better. 

Skunk Cabbage: First Flower of the Year...

Skunk Cabbage about to bloom

     Today I noticed the first flower of the year about to bloom. Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) is already poking above the ground and is about to bloom in our wetlands and bogs. It is usually the first plant to flower every year. It's scientific name is very fitting, translating to "fetid or stinking compound fruit." They do indeed smell and the fruit that results if pollinated is a compound fruit. But this plant goes by a wide variety of common names however: Skunk Cabbage, Swamp Cabbage, Skunkweed, Meadow Cabbage, Fetid Hellebore, Parson-in-the-Pillory, Polecat Weed, Clumpfoot Cabbage, Midas Ears, and Polkweed for example.

Skunk Cabbage has very large leaves.

     The odor (as well as dead-meat color) helps to attract its main pollinators of carrion beetles, carrion flies, and thrips. But probably just as important an attractant to ectothermic (cold-blooded) insects is the plant's ability to heat itself and the surrounding area through a process sometimes referred to as thermogenesis. This is very attractive and valuable to insects seeking warm refuge from the winter cold as well as food. The plant can actually generate a temperature 36+ degrees Fahrenheit above its surroundings. An emerging "spathe" housing the tiny flowers within can maintain a temperature in excess of 70 degrees Fahrenheit for up to 2 weeks. It can actually melt the snow and ice around it. It may take 5-7 years for an individual plant to bloom, but a plant can live in excess of 200 years, and some claim up to 1000 years. 

Skunk Cabbage spathe melting the snow around it

     Slugs will also rob the flower of its yellow pollen and even eat its leaves. Few other things though are willing to eat the leaves which, as is typical with plants in the Arum family, are protected by calcium oxalate crystals which are capable of chemically burning most potential herbivores (though bears supposedly like them). 

     Here's a short video of Skunk Cabbage: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJLm-8xBiCU

     Despite its odorous properties and chemical defenses, many Native American Indian tribes used this plant in a variety of ways. Since drying the plant renders the calcium oxalate harmless, it was used as food by some. But its real usefulness for them was as a medicine. 

     The Iroquois used it as a de-wormer, to combat rheumatism and TB, to treat dog bites and other wounds, and even as underarm deodorant. The Menomini used it to treat cramps, convulsions, wounds, heart issues, hemorrhage, and in tattoos to ward of diseases. The Nanticoke, Chippewa, and Delaware used it for coughs. The Delaware also thought Skunk Cabbage could be made into a poultice against pain and as a tea for epilepsy. Many other tribes had similar uses. 

A mostly Skunk Cabbage patch in a seepage swamp in early May in Linden, Virginia

     The leaves of this plant are quite large, up to several feet long and wide, in order to capture what little sunlight penetrates the tree cover. These provide shelter to many creatures. Some claim that Common Yellowthroats (a type of bird) for example will nest in it or under the leaves not just for cover, but because the smell of the plant helps mask the bird and its nest.

     This plant is very difficult to transplant once established, its roots evolving to growing after being buried in the muck, so it can have an extensive and very deep root system. Since it also does not reliably produce seed, you rarely see it in cultivated situations. So if you're tired of winter and seek the hope of spring flowers, check out your local wetlands and swamps for the first flower to bloom, now that you know a bit more about it.

Skunk Cabbage tends to grow in swamps and other shaded wetland conditions.

Wildlife Shrubs

     Someone asked me about shrubs to plant that could provide food for birds. Obviously native shrubs provide better food sources than exotics, but which to choose from so many different species? Not only that, but when I think of providing bird food, I also know that almost all our terrestrial birds feed their young insects, especially caterpillars (Lepidoptera), so those that are caterpillar host plants would be the best to choose. Luckily I had already been collecting this type of info for my book and so I was able to throw this together. I plan to dedicate a whole section in my book to this topic, but here's a rough preview. These are some of my recommendations for native habitat shrubs with a little about each. There are so many more that I could have chosen, but these are the ones I think have the best overall wildlife value, are attractive, and not as difficult to find in the horticultural trade (though I would avoid any cultivars and stick the straight true native species). Sorry I didn't have the best photos for each (now I know I need them and will get them) and for the length of this post.

Buttonbush, sometimes called Honeyballs, in bloom with a Perplexing Bumblebee nectaring on it.

Buttonbush/Honeyballs – Cephalanthus occidentalis   I’m aware of no better shrub for attracting various pollinators. It also hosts 19 species of Lepidoptera and various birds (24 species) will eat from the seed heads (and eat the caterpillars it hosts too). This shrub (5-12ft tall) has globular white flowers and blooms better in the sun. It is very tolerant of wet conditions, but can easily grow in regular garden soil and can take some pruning. Buttonbush also attracts numerous nighttime nectar-feeding insects, including moths, as well as occasional hummingbirds during the day.

Silky (Swamp) Dogwood with a couple of pollinators.

Dogwoods – Cornus spp. This genus, which contains many tree species, is known to host about 118 species of Lepidoptera and over a dozen beetles. The drupes (fruits) are a vital food source for birds and some 98 species are known to eat them, as well as at least 16 mammal species. Although Flowering Dogwood (our state tree/flower and largest native member) is the best known, numerous other local species also provide great wildlife benefits. These include:

• Alternate/Pagoda Dogwood (C. alternifolia) gets to 15 feet tall, tolerates some shade, and has  blue-black fruit. The only native dogwood that does not have opposite branching. 
• Silky/Swamp Dogwood (C amomum) gets 6-10 feet tall and tolerates wet conditions where it is thicket-forming and can take some shade. 
• Gray Dogwood (C. racemosa) gets to 15 feet, adaptable as to sun-shade, tolerates poor, compacted soils, but is not very common. 
• Stiff/Swamp Dogwood (C. foemina) gets to 12 feet, liking light shade, moist soils, and has black fruit, but is also fairly uncommon. 

Black Haw Viburnum in bloom

Arrow-wood Viburnum with fruit

Maple-leaf Viburnum with fruit

Viburnums – 104 Lepidoptera species are known to utilize viburnums. At least 35 bird species are known to favor their berries, as well as several mammal species. Various pollinators visit the fairly showy flowers. Here are a few of the local species to choose from:

• Maple-leaf Viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium) The most shade tolerant member of the group and shortest in stature. It is normally 3-6 feet tall with batches of dark blue berries that may persist well into winter. Not very tolerant of salt or pollution.
• Arrowwood (V. dentatum) Does best in sunnier locations where it will produce abundant blooms (but is not very drought tolerant) and get to about 12 feet in height. Bluish/black fruit are better liked than other viburnums as forage.
• Black Haw (V. prunifolium) 8-15 feet tall normally and often noted for its red fall foliage. It produces good displays of white flowers (especially in the sun) which then yield edible berries. It is fairly drought and wet tolerant, but not of compact or salty soil conditions.
• Possum Haw/Witherod/Wild Raisin (V. nudum) 6-12 feet tall and preferring more sun than shade. Beware that many plants are also called "possum haws." Holds its leaves well into winter, particular in the South where it is semi-evergreen. The clusters of whitish blooms turn into berries that change multiple colors before ending up bluish black. It blooms best with more sun and likes moist situations. The acidic fruits are edible.

Allegheny Serviceberry in bloom

Shadbush/Serviceberry/Juneberry  Amelanchier spp. The genus (with numerous common names and some tree species) is known to host 124 species of Lepidoptera and at least 40 bird species eat the fruit, as well as countless mammals (including people like me). The white flowers are beautiful for a brief period of time in early spring and supply much needed nectar sources at this bleak time of year. They will tolerate some shade and act as understory shrubs, but produce more flowers/fruits with sun. They are a superb wildlife plant as well as being edible landscaping. They are susceptible to cedar-apple rust. Here are just a few of the local species to choose from:

• Running/Dwarf/Thicket Serviceberry (A. spicata sometimes listed as stolonifera) The shortest and rarest member. It only grows to 6 feet tall but spreads slowly providing a nice hedge effect. It produces abundant and fairly large berries which are delectable! It can also tolerate drier conditions than any of the other Shadblows I’m aware of.
• Allegheny/Smooth Serviceberry (A. laevis) This “Sarvisberry” prefers moist but well-drained soil and is probably the most common found in the wild locally. The fruits are tasty and the shrub can get to 25 or so feet.
• Downy/Canada Serviceberry (A. arborea) This is our tallest Shadbush, sometimes getting to 40 feet, but is normally much shorter. Although all Amelanchiers can sucker, this one does so the most. Its fruits are the least tasty of the group. It is also the least tolerant of dry conditions. 

Washington Hawthorn with haws and showing its thorns

Hawthorns – Crataegus spp. A confusing group as far as sorting out species. Both Washington (Crataegus phaenopyrum) and Cockspur Hawthorn (Crataegus crus-galli) are some of the better known natives. More than 39 bird species have been seen eating the fruits (botanically pomes, but called "haws" colloquially), even more eat the more than 168 Lepidoptera species that feed on this genus as caterpillars. The thorny growth provides excellent nest sites and discourages deer browsing also. Can get to over 35 feet tall, but normally are much shorter, very slow growing, like full sun and are drought tolerant once established. Often planted for their spring flowers, long-lasting fruits, and as a living hedge/barrier.

Spicebush with fruit

Spicebush – Lindera benzoin  Not only a caterpillar host plant for the Spicebush Swallowtail and 10 other species of Lepidoptera, but its berries are also a favorite food source for migrating birds (17 species noted). It is shade tolerant and very deer resistant. You need both male and female plants to produce berries. 6-12 feet tall normally and has been used for making tea and flavoring other food/drink.

Elderberry cluster

Elderberry Sambucus canadensis  This genus is known to host 42 species of Lepidoptera and several other insects. Some 120 bird species have been noted feeding on its fruits (and on the numerous insects feeding on the foliage or visiting the flowers). The broken stems provide homes for mason and Ceratina bees at times also. It can get to 8 feet tall and prefers moist conditions and some sun. It will form clumps. The fruit is edible after some preparation and it has been used to make wine. The easy-to-hollow stems have also been used to make musical instruments, pea-shooters, and even blowguns once completely dry (but are slightly toxic if not dried).

Sumac fruit cluster

Sumacs – Rhus spp.  98 different bird species have been seen eating the fruits and even more birds feeding on the 58 or so Lepidoptera species that use this genus as caterpillar host plants. Only female plants produce fruit, but Sumacs can spread by suckering, forming dense colonies (thus limiting their use in manicured landscape situations). They have excellent, blazing fall color. Sumacs do better with sun and can be quite drought tolerant once established. Although not considered a great nectar source for butterflies, I recall participating in a large butterfly count during a drought where the only reliable nectar sources were sumacs that were covered in butterflies. Poison Sumac (Toxicodendron vernix or Rhus vernix) is a wetland/bog plant and rather rare in our region. Here are the native sumacs to consider:

• Fragrant Sumac (Rhus aromatica) The shortest of the batch, 3-6 feet tall typically, it can handle very hot and poor soils. It is “fragrant” in that its crushed leaves do not have a good odor and is actually rather rare locally in the wild.
• Winged/Shining Sumac (R. copallinum) 5-8 feet tall typically and with distinctive “winged” foliage. Spreads slower than most sumacs (excepting perhaps Fragrant).
• Smooth Sumac (R. glabra) 8-16 feet tall and without the “hairy” look of Staghorn. It is the         fastest spreading and may not be suitable for garden settings.
• Staghorn Sumac (R. typhina) The largest sumac, getting to 20 feet on occasion. The “hairy” or velvet appearance gives it its name and adds something to its fall look in addition to the scarlet foliage. 

Red Chokeberry with fruit from my front yard

Chokeberries (Red, Black) - Aronia  arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa respectively (formerly in the genus Photinia). Beautiful white flowers and long-lasting fruit make these a favorite for landscapes, especially in the sun. The fruit are not preferred food sources but are a “starvation food” readily consumed in late February or March by desperate birds, but still have some 21 species eating them. Plants tolerate most soil conditions including compaction, some salt, some flooding, and even pruning. Black Chokeberry is shorter (to 6 feet or so). Red gets to 10 feet sometimes. Both have been used to make juice and host 6 species of Lepidoptera.