Osage Orange: Living Fences of Bow-wood and Horse Apples

The pointed leaf, spiny twigs, and unique fruit of the Osage Orange

     Among the most unusual and recognizable of fruits is the Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera). It goes by a variety of names: Hedge Apple, Horse Apple, Monkey Ball, Yellowwood, Bois D'Arc, Bodark, Bodock, and Bow-wood for examples. It is actually not native to our region, but has been widely planted throughout North America, in all 48 contiguous states and parts of Canada. In fact, I've been told that the national champion is located in Alexandria, Virginia, at River Farm and was a gift from Thomas Jefferson.

     Originally this small tree (it rarely gets to 60') was mostly limited to the Red River drainage in Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas. Had it not been for the many virtues that people found in it, it may have eventually gone extinct. Many believe that it originally had its seeds dispersed by megafauna such as giant sloths, mammoths, mastodons, and gomphotheres that fed on its fruits but are now extinct. Very few creatures now feed on it, despite its large fruits, and so it has no real way to disperse its seeds these days. Although squirrels (mostly fox squirrels) and horses (thus the name Horse Apple) occasionally eat them, they do not do so very often and are very inefficient at distributing viable seeds. This is the only surviving member of the Maclura genus. 

     Being dioecious, with male and female flowers on separate plants, only the female trees produce the peculiar fruits. However, it appears that female trees can produce fruit even in the absence of male trees. The fruits produced however lack actual seeds and are not viable. This large, compound fruit is referred to as a syncarp botanically. It looks somewhat like a grainy grapefruit and has a slight citrus smell. The insides are not edible however, exuding a latex substance that is bitter and might even give some people a rash. 

     The tree has yellowish to orange wood that is extremely strong, rot resistant, and flexible. It also takes a polish very well and has long been considered one of the finest woods for bow staves even to this day. Since the tree often grows gnarled and crooked however, it is not always easy to find a straight and knot-free piece that is long enough for use in archery. 

     It is its use for superior bows that gives it several of its common names. Bois D'Arc means "wood of the bow" and was the French term for it upon seeing the Native American Indians use of it. That led to corruptions of that name so that it is sometimes called Bodark, Bodock, and Bow-wood.  The most common name of "Osage Orange" came about by its favored use as a bow material by the Osage tribe. They were famous for their superior and valuable trade bows.

     But they were far from the only people to use if for bows. Other tribes doing so included the Pima, Omaha, Pawnee, Ponca, Seminole, Tewa, Kiowa, and Comanche. Some think that it was so valuable that it was planted far outside its natural range and saved from extinction by the native people. They had other uses for it too. The Pima used for a yellow dye for example (and the tree is sometimes referred to as Yellowwood, though some other trees are also). The Comanche used it for an eye wash as well. 

The twigs and young branches often grow intertwined and are spiny

     But it was some of its other properties that led to it being so widespread. The tree, for example, is very tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions. Not only do the twigs have spines, but each leaf has a spine too. They grow quite fast in the sun, but do not spread very far by seed so as to invade fields. Rather, they can grow very thickly and reproduce next to each other by cloning and sucker growth. They soon can make an almost impenetrable and spiny wall that can be trimmed and pruned. Osage Orange was therefore planted as living fences and windbreaks on many farms before the advent of barbed wire. They could keep stock from wandering, but since they were short, did not shade out too many crops or forage areas. Their use as these living fences and natural wind breaks (promoted heavily in some places) helped this tree spread far and wide.

Each leaf typically has a spine at its base

     These traits were recognized long ago. Francis Porcher in his Civil War treatise on useful plants in the Confederate South praised its use for living fencing. He stated that its presence would "double the real value of any farm it surrounds" while keeping the lands safe "from all thieves, rogues, dogs, wolves, etc." 

An old living fence now has gaps and has fruits strewn underneath and along the whole length of the hedges they now form

     The close-grained and yellowish-orange wood was very much valued, and not just for bow staves. It is considered to be twice as strong as white oak. The timber is extremely rot resistant, even when in contact with ground. Early on, the wood was used for wagon wheels, rail road ties, fence posts, and even police billy-clubs. The timber has some of the highest BTU ratings of any North American wood, so it burns long and extremely hot. Its tendency to spark and throw embers a very far distance should however be taken into account if using it that way. 

The leaves have a slender point and turn yellow in the Fall

     Country lore also has it that the large fruits are a good insect repellent, especially for roaches. Tests however have shown that to be true only for very concentrated extracts from the fruit, so the Osage Oranges themselves would not be very useful for that endeavor. 

     Though few creatures feed on the Hedge Apples themselves, 8 caterpillar species have been documented feeding on the tree. It's real value to wildlife however comes from the shelter the intertwining, spiny branches and leaves provide. Many animals use it for cover and it is a mainstay of hedgerows to this day, surviving as gnarled trees that now have gaps in between that allow many native plants to also grow. 

An Osage Orange

     I have some fond memories of this tree. It was (and still of course is) found along many of the fence rows which I frequented when I was young. My father when taking me hunting as a teen would have me serve some of the duties for the hunting dog we lacked. My brother and I would walk on either side of the hedgerows and flush the game while we hunted. As there were some thickets and the aforementioned spines to be reckoned with, my brother and I would try and find various ways to spook the game for all of us to hunt that would not involve getting into the thickets themselves. The Osage Oranges proved to be just what we needed. We would stop every few yards and load up our game vests with few. That way when we came across a particularly nasty thicket, we could just pull out some of the large fruits to launch into the hedges to flush things out rather than venture in ourselves. So this tree I associate with some of my early outdoor experiences, and I thank it for not just the habitat it provided, but also for saving me from getting poked by sticker bushes. 

     

Euonymus Leaf Notcher Moths

A male Euonymus Leaf Notcher Moth (Pryeria sinica), an exotic wasp mimic

     On October 29, 2015, one of our Arlington Regional Master Naturalists, Alison Sheahan, posted a photo and description of numerous moths that appeared in her yard on the master naturalist Google Group. This led to some of speculation as to what these were, since they looked fairly unusual with their clear wings and it was a strange time of year for moths to come out, especially in such large numbers (30-50 of them). They did not fit the description any of the moths I was aware of and so I decided to investigate a bit more.
     It then occurred to me that they might be an exotic species of moth I had read about in an invasive species alert a couple of years before. I asked if I could take a closer look at them and confirm my suspicions. A few days later I visited and was quite sure of what they were, but took some photos and collected some voucher specimens to send to some professional entomologists for confirmation. I then proceeded to ask our Extension Agent for assistance in getting in touch with their entomologist contact and to see what protocols needed to be followed in case they were the invasive pest in the original alert. The visit to our Extension Office provided a nice teachable moment since a Master Gardener class was taking place. This led to an opportunity to talk about invasive species, EDRR (Early Detection, Rapid Response), and how observant citizen scientists can help in detecting potential issues such as these moths could be. The entomologist eventually confirmed my suspicions.

Euonymus Leaf Notchers mating. The males have feathery antennae.

     Euonymus Leaf Notcher Moths were first discovered in North America in 2002 in a Fairfax, Virginia yard where they were causing great damage. The caterpillars were feeding in large numbers. and defoliating the Euonymus shrubs. It took a while before entomologists were able to figure out the exact species, an exotic moth Pryeria sinica. These sporadically showed up in several places in suburban Maryland over the next couple of years, leading Maryland to describe them as invasive species of concern.
     They can apparently survive our winters (they're originally Asian in origin), feed and reproduce in large numbers, are not eaten by many predators, and prefer to feed on various Euonymus species of shrubs, a group of plants used extensively in the landscape industry. They could therefore possibly cause great economic damage. Since we have native Euonymus (Strawberry Bush) and since they can also feed on the very widespread Bittersweet on occasion, their invasive potential is great. They seem to prefer Japanese Euonymus (Japanese Spindle-tree Euonymus japonica), which is what we found them on, but they appeared to also be on the Burning Bush Euonymus shrubs there as well.

Female Euonymus Leaf Notcher laying eggs and an egg mass with protective hairs (modified scales) from their own bodies

     There were several dozen flying that day (November 3) in the warm weather, mating and laying eggs. These moths appear to be wasp mimics, perhaps getting a measure of protection by looking like these stinging insects with their clear, scale-less wings. Euonymus plants have acyanogenic compounds in their leaves protecting them from getting eaten. I think the moths sequester these from when they fed on them as caterpillars and so are somewhat toxic as well. Their body "hairs" (modified scales called setae) likely are defensive as well. When they lay their eggs, they place hairs from their bodies on top to help protect them (see photo). Several moth species that have urticating, protective hairs also cover their eggs and cocoons with them.
     These are daytime flying moths, who come out in great numbers when few other moths or their predators are active. Since they have reduced mouth parts, I'm guessing they don't even feed as adults (it's the caterpillars who feed gregariously and notch the leaves giving them their names).
     Euonymus Leaf Notchers mate near or on their host plants. The females I think send out pheromones which attract the males and other females in large numbers. That is likely why the males have such feathery antennae, to detect the pheromones, and why they were so many together in one location. The females then lay egg masses (about 150 eggs at a time) near the top of pencil-thin Euonymus twigs where they will remain overwinter, hatching in late March or early April.

First instar caterpillars (newly hatched and not molted their first time yet) hang out communally, usually on the underside of the leaf.

     The caterpillars feed communally at first, leaving tell tale notch marks, or completely stripping the plant when in large numbers. They hide under the leaf and can wander far in search of food (as I discovered when a couple got underneath the screen I had them and wandered down the hall).

Multiple instars (molts) of caterpillars.

     Here's a short video of them:
               https://www.youtube.com/watch?edit=vd&v=8UOhfaGmd1w

     Some literature suggests just crushing the eggs or snipping the infected twigs off. That's what we did, but returned in the spring to see what we missed. There were hundreds, with us coming back a couple of times to try and eradicate them as their leaf damage gave them away. I'm raising a few to get photos of their complete life cycle, but well over a hundred have been killed, hoping we can contain or eliminate this threat before they spread.
     While their numbers were still low and since they are not strong fliers, it was a good time to get them, before they got established. But we missed some obviously and will have to keep our efforts up. That is one of the reasons for Early Detection and Rapid Response as a way to deal with new invasives. We may be able to prevent them from getting a good foothold, especially if we get the neighborhood and our local folks to keep an eye out for them. I've since heard that they've also just been discovered in Great Britain. Maybe someone will read this and be able to recognize this invasive moth if it moves into their community regardless of where they live.
     All this began when an informed master naturalist was curious about something new that she had never noticed in her yard before and asked her colleagues to help identify them. It just goes to show that keeping an eye out and taking interest in what is around you might lead to hopefully some timely actions.

Shellbark Hickory

Shellbark Hickory leaves and nuts

     Shellbark Hickories (Carya laciniosa) are actually not native to our region, but have been widely planted. We found a very large one in of our parks. I had always wanted to try to eat them before and so decided to collect some. While all hickory nuts are edible, some are not supposed to be worth it. Thin shelled (hulled) nuts tend to be the least appetizing. Bitternut Hickories for example are named this for a reason, and Pignut Hickories are supposed to be only fit for pigs. Shellbark, much like Pecans, are thick hulled hickories on the other hand that have a reputation for being tasty.

Shellbark is the largest of our hickory nuts

     Shellbark Hickory nuts are also the largest of our hickory nuts. Unlike Mockernut Hickories, which also appear large, they do not "mock" you with small bits of meat. This is what I'd heard anyways, as well as how they can be tricky to crack just right to get at the meat but not crush them into tiny little pieces. 

Shellbark nuts and leaf

     So I collected a small bagful, feeling lucky to have beat the squirrels to them. Some had hulls still on them, others had already shed them. I cracked a few in my basement using a hammer, with various levels of success. After trying three of them, I was not impressed however. The meat did not look that appetizing and didn't taste very good at all. I wondered if I was getting the best nuts, specially after going through the trouble of trying to crack them just right. 

     It was then I recalled a way to test nuts for germination. You can float test nuts, sticking them in water. If they float, then they likely have air holes, insects or insect frass, and/or are rotten or have old meat. Those that sink have the best chance of being whole and best chance to germinate. It seemed that I could use the same test to figure out which nuts were worth cracking and which floated instead. Only about a third, after removing their thick hulls, I  was disappointed to find out, sank to the bottom and thus supposedly would be good to eat.

A float test, the ones that float are not likely to be good to eat or to germinate.

     But they were quite tasty indeed. My family enjoyed the small but worthwhile harvest. I still need practice opening them, but think I've saved some time by float testing them first. I also now will have to test all the other hickory nuts we have growing locally to see which other ones I can enjoy...

Shellbark Hickory nut meat

Here's a comparison between a Mockernut Hickory (right), which is among the largest of our hickory nuts, and Shellbark on the left. Keep in mind that though the shells are big in Mockernut, they "mock" you cause there's very little meat inside. 

Shellbark Hickory in Fall color...

Leopard Slug

     Leopard Slugs (Limax maximus) are common garden residents which many of us have seen before. This is a bit surprising since they are not native to North America but rather are originally from Europe. Thanks to their ability to live with humans and to travel with agricultural products, they have been accidentally introduced into many parts of the world. They go by a wide variety of common names such as Great Grey Slugs, Great Garden Slugs, and Tiger Slugs.
     Though quite variable in color, they normally have spots and can attain large sizes (up to 8 inches, though 3-4 inches is more common). Their scientific name literally translates to "biggest keeled slug." Though quite big, there are bigger slugs, even in the keeled slug family (called this due to their slightly roof-shaped last third of their backs). Among our local species though, none get to their size.
     Leopard Slugs have a most unusual mating system. First of all, they are all hermaphrodites. Each slug has both male and female sexual organs, though they cannot mate with themselves. Rather they suspend themselves by a mucus rope they form, pair up, and mate while hanging in the air.

Giant Leopard Slug with its eggs

     These acrobatic sexual antics lead to some interesting looking eggs. The first time I found some, I had no idea what they were, looking like little glass BB's or beads. I raised them in a tank to discover what creature made them and was rewarded less than a month later by tiny slugs.

One day old slugs next to their eggs and a dime for size comparison.

      It takes Leopard Slugs about two years to sexually mature and they can live a little over three years total. They have a strong homing instinct, usually returning to the same place to hide every night. They are primarily nocturnal and are quite the omnivores. They can feed on a variety of things, both living and dead. They can eat detritus, pet food, and even pet poop. They can feed on carcasses, fungi, and unfortunately garden plants. Leopard slugs are also cannibalistic, sometimes chasing down other slugs to eat. Since they are larger and faster than our native slugs, I suspect that is why we usually only find these and not many other types.

Leopard Slugs feeding on fungus

     Now before you go reaching for that salt shaker or setting out that stale-beer slug trap to drown them, lets recall that these beasts have been with us for a long time. First recorded in North America by George Washington Tryon in 1867, they've been spreading at a snail's pace (they are after all snails with out complete shells, though they retain a small shell under the shield-part of their bodies) and are here to stay. So, sure you might try to control some if they become pests, but there will always be more, following their slimy trails back and forth faithfully through your gardens and lawns.

The Devil's Walking-stick

A Devil's Walking-stick

     Among our strangest of shrubs is the Devil's Walking-stick (Aralia spinosa). There are a lot of peculiar traits to this common tree. It also known by a variety of different names, though most are also used used for other trees, in particular Zanthoxylum calva-herculis, leading to confusion. These include Hercules Club, Prickly Ash, Angelica Tree, Prickly Elder, Toothache Tree, Spikenard, Tearblanket, Pigeonberry, and Pigeon Tree. 

     Its most common name comes from the straight, very prickly trunk, which usually only has a single, branchless stem and rarely gets over 30' tall at best. They normally form small clumps of trees, with individual plants sending up new shoots around the parent plant. Damage to the roots and stems seems to encourage even more prolific suckering of new stems. This may be an adaptation helping the sun-loving tree react to forest fires and fallen trees to take advantage of the sun spots.

The fruit/flower stalk on this shrub is very colorful even after the berries have fallen off. 

     The stems and trunks almost never have any branching and most of the growth is concentrated near the top of the plant, giving it a very unique appearance. It stands out in almost every season, whether because of its huge flower heads (up to 4' wide), brightly colored fruit stalks, prickly aspects (even the leaves have spines along many of the veins, thus the scientific epithet of spinosa), or huge berry clusters. 

Berries (several already missing) and fruit stem. 

     The berries do not last long, though they are not a preferred food choice for any particular creature that I'm aware of. Each berry contains 3-5 very small seeds in the middle of the juicy fruit. They can really stain clothes or your fingers. Individual plants generally do not produce flowers or fruits until after their 3rd or 4th year of growth. Some believe the fruits were a favorite of the now extinct Passenger Pigeon (and thus its other common names of Pigeonberry or Pigeon Tree), but that is debatable. 

Most parts of the tree, even leaves, have prickles and spines. 

     Devil's Walking-stick has the largest leaves of any tree in North America. They are so large as to appear to be branches, but in reality are giant, twice compound leaves. Some can be over 3' long and 2' wide. That they are actually leaves is evident when they fall off in the Autumn, leaving a very prickly single trunk to stand alone. 

A single twice compound leaf, the largest of any of our trees.

     The large leaves serve as food for 8 different species of caterpillars and are heavily eaten at times by various beetles. Their prickly nature discourages browse by such creatures as deer. The finely chopped leaflets have been used when very young as potherbs, but others warn of their mildly toxic nature, especially if older or not well cooked. Some people even develop dermatitis from contact with any part of the plant at all. 

Giant leaves in their Fall color, though yellow is more common.

     Devil's Walking-stick has had a variety of uses by people. Ethnobotanist Daniel Moerman recorded that the Cherokee used various parts to treat rheumatism, sores, venereal disease, ease the pain of decaying teeth, and even for flatulence. They used the sap from the roots to try and ease paralysis, though they also noted that the green roots were poisonous.The Choctaw made a poultice from the boiled roots as a cure for boils and swollen leg veins. The Koasati used drops derived from it for sore eyes, while the Rappahannock thought it could be used for boils, fevers, and sores.
     During the Civil War, Confederate doctor Francis Porcher was tasked with finding alternative medicines for those no longer available due to Union blockades. He noted that the bark could be used for chronic rheumatism, colic, syphilis, and the pain from dental cavities (thus another moniker of Toothache Tree). As a vomiting agent, he stated that it was "probably to be preferred to any emetic yet discovered among our native plants." In South Carolina, he said the plant was "the rattlesnake master par excellance" for treating snake bites. He was quite a supporter of its medicinal uses.
     As can be seen, there is a lot to this shrub besides its unusual appearance. Something to keep in mind when running into this prickly character anytime in the year, but particularly this Halloween season.

Witch Hazel

Witch Hazel in bloom

     Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) is a very common shrub in our region that is often overlooked. However, it has some interesting natural history and folklore associated with it. It also is calling attention to itself as one of the only woody plants to be in bloom this time of year. Each slightly aromatic flower consists of 4 slender twisted yellow petals which are often in bloom as its leaves change color or have even already dropped for the Fall. It is usually the last shrub to bloom, giving it one of its alternate names of "Winterbloom."
     Since there are few pollinators available so late in the season, the flowers can self-pollinate and are not picky as to which pollinators make use of them. Often they are gnats or Noctuid moths, but quite a few other pollinators have been noted. Each individual flower also lasts quite a long time giving potential pollinators ample time to find them.

Witch Hazel in Fall color.

     Witch Hazel can reach 30' in height, but rarely does so. It is usually an understory shrub, twisted in form. The seeds take a year to mature, with last years seed pods often still unopened next to the following year's blossoms. It has an interesting seed dispersal mechanism, popping audibly and shooting the dark seeds up to 30' feet away. This has led to such additional common names as Snapping Alder or Snapping Hazel. Once the seeds have been expelled, they commonly take two years to then germinate. 

Winterbloom flowers with seed pods. 

     Although many magical qualities are associated with this plant, its common name of Witch Hazel is actually derived for different reasons. The "witch" part comes from an older English word "wych" meaning "bendable" or "bending." It looked similar enough to the European Wych Elm that the name was applied to the New World plants. This was later corrupted to "witch" but possibly because so many magical properties were also attributed to it.

Popped seed pods and seeds. The seeds are supposed to be edible, but only as an ill-tasting starvation food.

     Folklore would have you believe that forked branches of Witch Hazel can be used to detect a variety of things. "Rhabdomancers" preferred using this plant to all others to find underground water sources. Some people still believe the forked and bendable Witch Hazel can be used for dowsing or "water witching." In the past, the shrub was used to supposedly find coal, tin, copper, and even detect witches. 

     But the indigenous people had been using Witch Hazel well before European settlers attributed such powers to it. According to ethnobotanist Daniel Moerman, the Cherokee used an infusion from the bark to treat pains, colds, sores, scratches, fevers, sore throats, tuberculosis, or simply as a tea for good health. The Chippewa used it as a skin lotion and eye wash, along with using it to induce vomiting in case of poisoning. The Iroquois made a poultice from the twigs to treat colds, arthritis, coughing, heart issues, bruises, and to treat falls to pregnant women. Parts were also used by them to treat dysentery, asthma, heart problems, cholera, kidney ailments, lung troubles, tooth aches, venereal diseases, and as an appetite stimulant. 

     This plant panacea was also used for less medicinal practices. The seeds were used by the Menominee to make sacred beads and as an augury to predict if the sick would recover. They also used Witch Hazel to make a sports liniment to be rubbed on legs during sports. The Mohegan thought that two crossed sticks of this plant could be used to find underground water or buried treasure (in addition to using it as a lotion for cuts, bruises and insect bites). The Potawatomi used it in their sweat baths and to treat sore muscles. 

     During the Civil War, Confederate doctor Francis Porcher was ordered to come up with alternative medicines and goods no longer available due to Union blockades. He noted the Native American Indians using Witch Hazel as a bark wash for tumors, inflammations, swellings, hemorrhoids, and eye afflictions which could be duplicated in the South. A tea made from the leaves he thought could be used to treat violent vomiting and ease child birth pains. He also expressed the wonderful properties of this plant as divining rods and detecting water. 

     Witch Hazel can still be found in many over-the-counter medicines and treatments to this day. Its astringent qualities are used in many healthcare products. Modern uses still include treating sores, bruises, insect bites, psoriasis, poison ivy, swelling, varicose veins, and hemorrhoids. 

A Witch Hat Gall caused by the aphid Hormaphis hamemelidis. 

     Wildlife of course make use of Witch Hazel. Sixty-three species of caterpillars have been found to feed on it. One of the more interesting insects to make use of it is an aphid called Hormaphis hamamelidis. It normally spends part of its life cycle on birch trees, but is most noticeable on Witch Hazel. The aphid forms a cone-shaped gall growth on the leaves and lives inside. They are often referred to as as Witch Hat Galls due to their appearance. 

     Such a bewitching plant with so many interesting qualities attributed to it, seems fitting it calls attention to itself around Halloween. 

Acorn Weevils

Acorn Weevil grub next to a dime for size comparison. The dark particles are frass and a you can see a couple of holes in the acorn itself.

     Acorn Weevils (Genus Curculio) are a type of beetle that feeds inside nuts such as oak acorns. Like all weevils, they have extremely long snouts as adults which they use to pierce and feed. The female adult Acorn Weevil drills a hole in a forming acorn and lays her eggs inside. The little grub is plump and light colored, feeding inside the nut until the Fall. The acorn is eaten away from the inside and often you can find the tell-tale hole. They will feed on almost any oak species.
     In the Fall, the acorn falls and the grub somehow manages to squeeze out the small hole. Squirrels do not eat the damaged acorns and they will not germinate. When collecting nuts for planting, a good test to see if you have viable acorns is to give them a "float test." You drop the acorns in the water and observe them. Those that sink are okay and weevil free. The ones that float or sink very slowly releasing air bubbles are occupied. They float due their light nature and air in the eaten nut.
     The larvae (grub) buries itself in the ground to pupate after emerging. It may take up to 5 years for it to emerge as an adult weevil and start the process all over. I had heard the weevil grubs were edible and so decided to find out first hand if that was so.
     I have eaten beetle grubs before, notably the large Suri beetles grubs in the jungles of Peru, but these were small and a first for me. They were actually a bit rubbery and not as creamy as the Suri grubs. You would need a lot to fill you up, but I guess would be a good source of protein. I've been told they taste better if quick fried in butter, maybe so. They were not particularly appetizing to me.
     Here's a video from the Capital Naturalist YouTube Channel detailing my experiment:

                  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q_uvb6VDN7Y

     Here's me eating a Suri grub in the Peruvian jungle for comparison:

                   https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTXHxZducCk